THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
FROM THE LIBRARY
OF
ELDSCIBEL
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/allengreenoughsnOOalleiala
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S
NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
EDITED BY
J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE
A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. DOOGE
GINN & COMPANY
BOSTON - NEW YORK + CHICAGO . LONDON
ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL
CopyriGHT, 1888, BY
J, B. GREENOUGH anp J. H. ALLEN
CopPpyRIGHT, 1903, BY
GINN & COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
310.7
The Atheneum Press
GINN & COMPANY» PRO-
PRIETORS + BOSTON : U.S.A,
JOIPFIF
DA
208]
R420
PREFACE
THE present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888.
This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of
Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance
with principles that met with his full approval. The renum-
bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the
arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer-
tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former
edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the
editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance
in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical
and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor
during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of
this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In
general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as
set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of
scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and
accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough’s Gram-
mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its
method or its contents. ‘The editors have seen no occasion to
change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica-
tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis-
factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify
either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement
seemed possible.
In the matter of « hidden quantity” the editors have been even
more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is
one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi-
gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts
il
iv PREFACE
are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of
comparatively slight interest except to special students of the
arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the
evidence seemed practically decisive.
The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and
assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for
the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They
are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer-.
sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical
and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also
due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has codperated in the revision
throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience
as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point.
SerremBer 1, 1903.
CONTENTS
PART I— WORDS AND FORMS
LETTERS AND SouNDS . .
Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds
Orthography, Syllables, Pronunciation
Quantity and Accent . siwiee as
Combinations; Phonetic Changes .
Worpbs AND THEIR Forms . Nae ete vga eee
Parts of Speech . . . ee EE
Inflection; Root, Stem, eid Base a aes
Gender, Number, and Case . oe:
Deciension or Nouns :
General Rules of Deslension ;
First Declension .
Second Declension . aeons beret wae ts
PRUETT UROL SION <2 <a vee oad Pai “ete ee Ren.) Sing ele
Mute Stems... ER LR Bee ee ORS
Liquid and Nasal Stems Peas oe
Pure i-Stems : 5 gs Sees
Mixed EL StCIOS ss. co er Ses
Irregular Nouns Sale ee eee
PSO NORUS= = 23. Ne Gcel sortaitien ete fe
Rules of Gender .
Fourth Declension .
Fifth Declension . 7
Defective and Variable othe ‘ Ns
INDIO OF POrsOns a) > oe ee een
INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES
First and Second Declensions
Third Declension et Wes eae i ee a 2 -
ROIISREINGE 8, Ro a 6 Pig Cat ites hoy gta ae gy is) ae ne a
Numerals . ateeate
INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS . 3
Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demnonsteative
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite .
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) .
SeeneReeOn OF VERBS 6 as 8 en ew
Inflection . . ees eye
Signification : Voice, Mood, Tense ete Pee
ORIN MAES os oe wea, oe ae
v
CONTENTS
Forms: Stem and ee
The VerbSum .. . oor
Regular Verbs ..
The Four Conjugations; Principal Parts =
Formation of the Three Stems
Synopsis of the Verb . . .
Peculiarities of Conjugation .
First Conjugation ;
Second Conjugation. .
Third Conjugation .
Fourth Conjugation . : =
Verbs in -i6 of the Third Conjugation ,
Deponent Verbs . : “ 7
Periphrastic Conjugations
Irregular Verbs . ois
Defective Verbs... .
Impersonal Verbs . 3
Classified Lists of Verbs
PARTICLES
Rate tr Sot shire
Prepositions
Conjunctions .
Interjections .
ForRMATION OF Worps .. .
Roots and Stems. é ;
Suffixes: Primary; Significant Bindings :
Derivation of Nouns ....
Derivation of Adjectives .
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives
Derivation of Verbs. . .
Compound Words . . .
PART II—SYNTAX
Intropucrory Note . .
Tue SENTENCE. . 3
Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, ‘ete. ;
Agreement: the Four Concords
Nouns: Apposition ; Predicate Agreement
ADJECTIVES .
Rules of Agreement
Special Uses .
PRONOUNS .. eae fhe
Personal and Dearvoniraties ee
LSE Sy ole ally NES a Age
AMOREEUO Aaah Se eet eg) g's lg his
CONTENTS
RIBIVOs Sen ease et SoS RS Ses
BRC e ei ta es gs Re OC lee bate
Ating-and ‘alter 5) c6. saa: + MEPS
MERE S55 ets 3
Verb and Subject, Tncomplete Bantences.
Particites: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives .
QUESTIONS .. 6 et ete
CoNnSTRUCTION OF Casas ao) errr aut
Introductory Note ......
NOMINATIVE CAgW: «4% 2 3 + 6: % 8
MOCRIIVR CAGE. Foye. eT
IGRNITIVE- CASE. os) (6 ces Se
Genitive with Nouns .... .
Possessive Genitive .
Genitive of Material, of Quality .
. Partitive Genitive -
Objective Genitive
Genitive with Adjectives .
Genitive with Verbs
Verbs of Remembering snd Forgetting.
Verbs of Reminding .
Verbs of Accusing, Condeuning, Sad Acquiting ‘
Verbs of Feeling. ... .
Interest and réfert.
Verbs of Plenty and Want; Special Verte
Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, ete:
Dative Case . P
Indirect Object with. Transitives:
Indirect Object with Intransitives .
Dative cf Possession . .. J
Dative of the Agent .
Dative of Reference ... .
asthical Dative: <s/.0%s 6 we
Dative of Separation, .
Dative of the Purpose or End
Dative with Adjectives
AGOUSATIVE CASE ©. . « « «
Ditect. Objects. 6 oe 4s
Cognate Accusative .. .
Two Accusatives . . ;
Idiomatic and Special Uses
ABLATIVE CASE. :
Uses of the Ablative Proper : Peer an?”
Ablative of Separation . . . Sears ete late ae
Ablative of Source and Material . Sih ee Ns
Ablative. of Caine: << ox) a+ 6% fae ss ot ek eats
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
PA DIBEIIG OF AGUNG oe ee ow es ie 8 eo RO
Ablative of Comparison .. ... +. +s + «© « «© « « 264,265
Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental. . ..... . . . 256-265
Ablative of Means or Instrument ........ . . 256-258
ADiative of Manner a9: ic yes Ptel st) aie ieee aes 258
Ablative of Accompaniment . . . ... . «6 - + » 258,259
Ablative of Degree of Difference ....... . . « 259,260
DIAS VO OE QURIIOG oS ge lg av ee on reinces) oS ge ah leer is 260
Abiaiveiol Price.) 4 <2 8 + 6 ee wo eh, Se ee
Ablative of Specification . . . 2. . 2. «© «© © « «© « « 262,268
WAblative Abeointes 0) 6 eta 8 8 ew oe 8 we fo ot eee
Uses of the Ablative as Locative . .......+24e-. 265
SIME EN DPE TAGH S65 <p. a, oh ce), Use <br ie) wet cw set comncwtl £ou Me. test Re rgh ae
SPecrAL Uses Or PREPOSITIONS . 9% 5 0 6 «oe Sg Stee BIR ZT
SU NTAS OR THR AVERB is ge ee. (e Meritetl wills ute Wide Sg eee
Moops .. ae) Spire Soa ah ee ie, jer Dee, a TROUT ae ORI re Tae ae
Introductory Note eat a eS er CT Le A
InDICATIVE Moop. . . : i. Bah, Roads Radal ser ee 277
SUBJUNCTIVE IN Vasu renews EES a let els, Ane aee
Hortatory Subjunctive. ...) .siiente tl te) Serie ON. 1S RBS 270
Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions .......... 279
Optative Subjuncthves taceccd fade eit ON) eels A RRR
DIGUDOPAUTS DUDIINCHYVO 6 4 ks ee 281
Potential SGManchyve <x a a we we. lw ee at?
IMPERATIVE Moop. . . sibs teith an Febe-et nue! he OC Re ees
Prohibition (Negative Command) . Pi date dieg ho Bastar te 285
Inrinitive Moop .. . : FA aay Pere Ba
TREGUIVG BS NOUR eos, sg Ae shew ten tes. Ss ate Se
Infinitive with Impersonals . . . . . . . . + « « « « 287,288
Complementary Infinitive. . . oi, /00 | ehiitan., w HSE a eee ede) eee ee
Infinitive with Subject ‘Accusative . : oe haere dy athe 290
Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives woes 16. Bias) 0 acs. oe een ao L
PERC MROrT SOMDUAVS 6 oho) sa) 5 emer) rem. ee de, 0 RD 292
PEMOTIGRL SHUUIMVE 6 2, soo! 5, em wos att te Bes 292
TENSES . . « Bp wy ie lite cela bs ad af pth US Aen Ret | ae koe Semen ets
Introductory Note ete ee Se a Veh eV re Seah oe 293
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE . 6. 6 8) ee 6 wt ee) > 298-801
EPHBONG OHS ies 120 is) on ae ak ve Rb a a, Bi WE. ei eS ne Oe
RIMMGETOCE Tense Ss ecF ies WS ca ed ew I SR
OPUATER POLLING yon ipa ei, er ool. brie iog bj, fobs eur wy. Rion et pce MVC a ROUND 298
PRELOCEE DONBO1 se) 6 etre, ows. e Uhe cer lee ceiSer) Sees Litera peeeOe
ELIOT ONAGT Gy ce mash hwy tel our ey Vie nie ie? ven Neo” SgneR 800
eMC “POLIOCk TENGE: jaja veiw lh oy Vantiek Sitiecys fee Watley WS 800
ALOT AG Sie a oh ek tee ic, SO ree Tee la eae 801
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE . . . « © s « «© «© «© « «© « 801-806
MeMONOD Of TONGS oo ee, ke. Oe we le ee at OR OS
CONTENTS
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. . . ». « «© «© «© «
PARTICIPLES .. Gel ge ie-caa ie ag te eee ea erie
Distinctions of Series eee gE le Bee oes
Wses-on Participles’ (oe. “s! sa Ls) ar Ace eee
Future Active Participle . . .
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE . .... .
SuPINE .. ba aes
ConpDiITIONAL Santunona Say) aA rans
Introductory Note... .. .
Protasis and Apodosis . eee
Classification of Conditions . . .
Simple Present and Past Conditions
Future Conditions . . te
Conditions Contrary to Fact . Sie
General Conditions . ae
Conditional Relative Clauses. ire
Condition Disguised . .
Condition Omitted .
Complex Conditions
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)
Use of Siand its Compounds .
Somamecye CLAUSES.) 3-6 ee en ees DRY
CiausEs OF PROovISO
CiausEs OF Purpose (FINAL ‘Ciavss)
Crauses oF CHARACTERISTIC. . . :
Ciauses or Resuitt (CONSECUTIVE Cuavses) .
Causan CLAUSES. . .« 2s s+ © we ee
TEMPORAL CLAUSES .
Ubi, ut, cum, quand6, as Indefinite Relatives.
Postquam, ubi, ut, simulatque .... .. -
TOMBE & 6555 oey Geet ge tay ee el
Cum Causal or Concessive . . $
Antequam and priusquaam . . . . - - « +
Dom, donec, and quoad.. ..- 2 2 6 eh i ee
CLAUSES WITH quin AND quéminus . . .
SupsTantive Cuauses . . . . . s. + « «
Introductory Note :
Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) .
Indicative with quod...) ew we
Indirect Questions . ai Ye A
PRGIRAOT DISCOURSE ss, <0 hocie ess, a! wer es oe
POiroauctory Note. 6866 kas Se, Oy eer Fes
Declaratory Sentences. . . . « « © « « « «
Subordinate Clauses . . . « «0 0 0 0 8
374-377
x CONTENTS
Tenses of the Infinitive
Tenses of the Subjunctive
Questions in Indirect Discourse
Commands in Indirect Discourse
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES F
Informal Indirect Discourse
-‘Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
Important Russ oF SynTAxX
ORDER OF WorpDs
General Rules
Special Rules ;
Structure of the Period
PROSODY
QUANTITY
RHYTHM .
Introductory Note rie
Measures of Rhythm; Feet . ae
The Musical Accent ; Cesura; Dieresis .
VERSIFICATION . : :
The Verse ; Semonion anit Eliion >
Dactylic Verse
Dactylic Hexameter .
Elegiac Stanza; Other Dactylic Verses
TAIN DIG “VOTRO. 5. 5, bp. a ET Oe
Iambic Trimeter . .. .
Other Iambic Measures
Trochaic Verse
Mixed Measures .
Logacedic Verse .
Metres of Horace
Index to the Metres of ioiaés
Other Lyric Poets
Miscellaneous Measures
EARLY Prosopy
MISCELLANEOUS ,
Reckoning of Time.
Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity
GLossaRY OF TERMS.
INDEX OF VERBS .
InDEX OF WoRDS AND icaeace
Latin AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS
PARALLEL REFERENCES.
401-405
405-409
405, 406
406-409
409
410-426
410, 411
411-414
411, 412
425, 426
426, 427
428-431
428, 429
429-431
432-435
436-444
445-475
476, 477
479-490
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
xi
ARAN RAS AS)
,
~
re
LATIN GRAMMAR
Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and
Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words
when joined together as parts of the sentence; Prosody of their arrange-
ment in metrical composition.
PART FIRST—WORDS AND FORMS
THE ALPHABET
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is
in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U,
and W.
Nore 1.— The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek
alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the
letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which
we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of
our era.
Norr 2.—The Latin names of the consonants were as follows: —B, be (pronounced
bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el;
M, em; N,en; P, pe (pay); Q, gu (Koo); R, er; S, es; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the
Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.
a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in
the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
Note. —In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be-
fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthagd. Thus there was no distinction in
writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming
(from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by
Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero’s time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form
of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in
words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
b. I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5).
Nore. —V originally denoted the vowel sound u (00), and F stood for the sound of
our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the
sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and
v for consonant u : — iis, vir, iuvenis
1
2 WORDS AND FORMS [ss 2-4| 94!
5,
Classification of, Sounds 9
2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, y. yo
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, | jy)
vi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol-.| ;
lowing the other in the same syllable. \ :
3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd)..
Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur ' bs
that is heard in vowels; voiceless consonants lack this murmur. '
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, Z, consonant i, y. in
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x.
4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table: :
LABIALS DENTALS PALATALS
Voiced (mediae) b d g |
Mutes ; Voiceless (tenués) p t c (k, q)
Aspirates ph th ch
Nasals m n n (before ec, g, q)
Liquids lr
Fricatives (Spirants) he 8, Z
Sibilants 8, Z
Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz); h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the
breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly
heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be
a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).?
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue
touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching
or approaching the palate.®
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously
through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the
breath passes through the nose.
}
|
Semivowels Vv consonant i |
|
|
|
|
|
1 Strictly a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
2 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In
early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
8 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or ris-
ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the
tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth). Compare
the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed
that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before 4, 0, or u.
§§ 5, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3
5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced
rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable! Con-
sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v)
that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
Nore 1.—The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant
sounds of i and u, but used each letter (Iand V) witha double value. In modern books
i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds; but in
printing in capitals J and U are avoided: —IVLIVS (Iulius). The characters J and U are
only slight modifications of the charactersland V. The ordinary English sounds of
j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v
in the pronunciation of some persons.
Note 2.—In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso- ©
nant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, cOnsuétus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In-
these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.?
" ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the
language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find lubet, vortd, as earlier, and libet, vert, as later forms. Other
variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus.
The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from
inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern
editions of the classics.
a. After y(consonant u),o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, servos),
and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first
century of our era.
b. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period; in the second cen-
tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words : —
cum, older quom ;° equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur;
similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.
Norr.— In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.
c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, 0, or u, an i was developed
as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con-
sonant i. In such cases but one i was written: as, aid (for fai-id), maius
(for tmai-ius), péius (for tpei-ius).
1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.
2 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that
no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.
8 The spelling quum is very late and without authority.
4 WORDS AND FORMS [$$ 6-8
d. Similarly in compounds of iacid but one i was written (as, con-icié,
not con-iicid); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i
followed by vowel i (see § 11. e).
Nore. —Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not
now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike;
hence niintid was later spel’ed with ac and dicid with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as,
aréna for haréna) or mistakenly written (as, hiimor for imor),
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open
e (about like English e in there), and similarly oe after a time became a long close e
(about like the English ey in they) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with
€: as, coena or caena for the correct form céna,
Syllables
7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or
diphthongs : —
a-ci-é, mo-né, fi-li-us, fe-rd-ci-ta-te.
a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including
consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with
the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated : —
pa-ter, mi-li-tés, in-id-ri-a, di-vi-d6 ; mit-td, tol-16.
Norte 1.— Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as
sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to
di-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.
Nors 2.— A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open; all others
are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
- &. In compounds the parts are separated : —
ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerné, du-plex, di-sté.
Pronunciation
8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre-
sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
VowEtLs: 4 as in father; 4 as in idea.
é as eh? (prolonged), or a in date; é as eh? (clipped) or e in net.
I as in machine; i as in holiest or sit.
6 as in holy; 5 as in obey.
ii as oo in boot; ti as 00 in foot.
y between u and i(French u or German ii).
DieHTHoncs: ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in boy;
eu as eh’oo; au like ow in now; ui as 00’ee.
§§ 8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 5
Consonants are the same as in English, except that —
ce and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem.
S as in sea, lips, never as in ease.
Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing.
n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the
preceding vowel, which was also lengthened; and final m in an
unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on
the preceding vowel.
ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con-
venience, be neglected); but ph probably became like (or nearly
like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced
to distinguish it from p.
z is as dz in adze.
bs is like ps; bt is like pt.
Nore. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the
letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in
English (as, Julius Cesar); and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum; vive
voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
Quantity
9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied
in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, —
long and short.
a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel
or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
10. Vowels are either long or short by nature, and are pro-
nounced accordingly (§ 8).
a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in via, nihil.
b. A diphthong is long: as in aédés, foédus. So, also, a vowel derived
from a diphthong: as in excliidé (from tex-claud6).
c. A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nil (from nihil).
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as in cOnstans, inferd, magnus.
Nore. — But the quantity of the vowel-before gn is not certain in all cases.
e. A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short: as in amandus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (A, 6, etc.), and
short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs
at once (a, é, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
Notre. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter
(called an apex), as, A; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An
{ made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i, But none of these
devices came into general use,
6 WORDS AND FORMS [§ 11
11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position
of the accent and in versification.
a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long
by nature: as, ma-ter, aes, au-la.
b. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(except a mute before 1 or.r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be
long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short: as, est, ter-ra, sax-um,
Me-zen-tius.
Notre.— When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis-
tinctly. Thus in mit-té both t’s should be pronounced as in owt-talk (not merely a
single t as in better).
c. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r
is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said
to be common.
Nore 1.—In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is
partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the
vowel. In syllables of ‘‘common”’ quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi-
nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable
could become long.
Nore 2.—In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel,
the quantity in verse is determined by the following word: if this begins with a vowel
the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation; if it begins with a consonant the
syllable is long by position.
Norte 3.—In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar-
ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. N. 2).
d. A syllable whose vowel is a, e, 0, or u, followed by consonant i, is
long whether the vowel itself is long or short: as, 4-i6, m4-ior, pé-ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book-by a
circumflex on the vowel.
Norr.— The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound
(vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, 4-id (for fai-id),
ma-ior (for tmai-ior). See §6.c.
é. In some compounds of iacié (as, in-icid) the consonant i of the simple
verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl-
lable was long by position: as, in-icid (for in-iicid). See § 6. d.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by
a circumflex on the vowel.
f. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not
always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is
known to be long.
Notr.— The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden.
It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi-
dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels
known to be long is marked.
§§ 12-14] ACCENT T
Accent
12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable:
as, Ro'ma, fi'dés, tan'go.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult 1}
if that is long (as, ami’cus, moné@'tur, contin'git); otherwise on the
Antepenult (as, do/minus, a’licris, dissocia’bilis).
a. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable
next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dé4’que, 4maré’ve, tibi‘ne,
ita’que (and... so), as distinguished from i’taque (therefore). So (accord-
ing to some) ex’inde, ec’quand6, etc.
Exceptions: 1. Certain apparent compounds of facid retain the accent of the
simple verb: as, benefa’cit, calefa’cit (see § 266. a).
Note. — These were not true compounds, but phrases.
2. In thesecond declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the
genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Corné‘li, Vergi‘li,
inge’ni (see § 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com-
plete words: as, illi’c for illi’ce, prédi’c for prédiice, sati’n for sati’sne.
Combinations
13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together,
are written as one : —
inusquisque (iinus quisque), siquis (si quis), quaré (qua ré), quamobrem (quam
ob rem ; cf. quas ob rés), réspiblica (rés piblica), iisiiirandum (iis iijrandum),
paterfamilias (pater familias).
Norr.— Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the
old poets, before est in hom6st (homé est), periculumst (periculum est), ausust (ausus est),
qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin’, scin’ for visne, scisne, sis (si.vis), sddés
(si audés), siltis (si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he’s, I’ve,
thow’rt.
Phonetic Changes
14, Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies,
the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first
territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form
of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic), from which
are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including
among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some
now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise
1 The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but twe
8 WORDS AND FORMS [$$ 14, 15
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the
most important are Italian, French, Provengal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian,
are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in-
crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera-
ture; that is, about B.c. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical
period (B.c. 80-a.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is
mainly this that is described in this book.
15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms
of classical Latin may be mentioned the following : —
Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedilis for old aidilis),
old oi became oe or it (inus for old oinos), and old ou became & (diicd for
old doucd).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i
or e, and ae similarly appears as i: —
facid, factum, but cénficid, cinfectum ; caedd, but occidd, and similarly cecidi,
perfect of caed6 (cf. cadé, occidd ; cecidi, perfect of cadé).
Notr. — This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl-
lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12)
became established. The original Indo-Européan accent, however, was not limited by
either of these principles; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a
change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : —
cdgd for tco-agd; promd for tpro-emd; nil for nihil; débed for tdé-hibed
(tdé-habed).
Consonant Changes
4, An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing
first through the sound of (English) z:—
eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.}
Notsr. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honds), from the
analogy of hondris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d,
or s: as, equestris for tequettris, casus for tcadtus (cf. 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found : —
cessi for tced-si; summus for tsupmus; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to
p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16).
1 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (ef. lose).
§§ 15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the
repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : —
Thus, parilia for palilia (from Palés); meridiés for tmedidiés; natiralis with suffix
-Alis (after r), but popularis with -aris (after 1).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plénu(s) fidéi.
Nore. — Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero’s time. Hespeaks of theomis-
sion of final s before a word beginning with a consonant as “‘ countrified ”(subristicum).
8. A final consonant often disappears: as, virgd for fvirgén; lac for
flact ; cor for tcord. ‘
9. G,c, and h unite with a following s to form x: as, réx for trégs; dux
for tducs ; traxi for jtrahsi.1
10. Gand h before t become ¢: as, réctum for tregtum ; actum for tagtum ;
tractum for {trahtum.?
11, Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed: as, simpsi for
jsimsi; €mptum for témtum.
16. Incompounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often
assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad,
acc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com-
(comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons. i, 4, s, t, cons. v; we
find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; cd- in conectd, conived, cOnitor, cOniibium. In usually
changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following ¢, f, g, or
p; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p; surr-,
summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant.
Circum often loses itsm before i. Thes of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi-
lated to a following f; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef-
before f (also ecf-). The d of red and séd is generally lost before a consonant. The
preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.
Vowel Variations
17, The parent language showed great variation in the vowel
sounds of kindred words.’
a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has
left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes
as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, 0; e, €), sometimes as a
difference in the vowel itself (as, e, 0; i, ae) :*—
tegs, I cover, toga, a robe; pendé, I weigh, pondus, weight ; fidés, faith, fidus,
faithful, foedus, a treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give,
ddnum, a gift; regs, I rule, réx, a king; dux, a leader, dicé (for older
doucd), Ilead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven ; bind, bound,
band ; sing, sang, sung; ete.
1 Really for ttraghsi. The h of trahd represents an.older palatal sound (see § 19).
2 Really for ttraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).
3 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.
4In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
10 WORDS AND FORMS [$$ 18, 19
Kindred Forms
~ 18, Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif-
ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre-
serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show
certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from
the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.
19. The most important correspondences in consonants between
Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following
table: —1
LATIN ENGLISH
p: pater f: father, earlier fader?
f from bh: ferd, frater b: to bear, brother
Dp: us ©. Inbet, libet v, f: love, lief
t: ti, tenuis th: thou, thin?
d: duo, dent- t: two, tooth
f from dh: facid d: do
d “ ‘+ medius d: mid
Dy tt ne 2a ker d: red
c: cord-, corni h: heart, horn
qu: quod wh: what
g: genus, gustus c, k, ch: kin, choose
h (from gh): hortus, haedus y; g: yard, goat
cons. i: iugum y: yoke
v: ventus, ovis w: wind, ewe
v from gv: vivus (for tgvivos), } qu, ¢, ki quick, come
venid (for tgvemid).
Nore 1.— Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as,
niv- (for {sniv-), Eng. snow; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose.
Nore 2.— From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care-
fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either
directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French.
Thus facid is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb
comes Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.
1The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates
(bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being,
for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f); for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has 4); for gh,
Latin -h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change,
while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid-
erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm’s Law for the shifting of mutes.
2 The th in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an
exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latint. The primitive Germanic
form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the
aecent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the
consonant underwent a secondary change to 4.
8 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st; as in Latin sté, English
stand.
§ 20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns,
Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar;
Roma, Rome; domus, a hotse ; virtiis, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other
nouns are called Common.
Notr.— An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, audacia, boldness ;
senectiis, oldage. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba,
crowd ; exercitus, army.
b6. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good ;
fortis, brave, strong.
NotE 1.—A Participleis a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being
derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, —
Caesar consul creatus, Cesar having been elected consul.
NotE 2.— Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective,
both being formed aJike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com-
mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from
other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.
ec. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or
idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; qui, who; nds, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
d. A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum,
I am; amat, he loves.
Notr.—In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any-
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion.
‘Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been
no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
e. An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of
an assertion or attribute: as, splendidé mendax, gloriously false ; hodié natus
est, he was born to-day.
Norr.— These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
f. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or
pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence: as, per agros
it, he goes over the fields ; € pliribus inum, one out of many.
Notr.— Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex-
pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
12 WORDS AND FORMS [$§ 20-22
g- A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words,
without affecting their grammatical relations: as, et, and; sed, but.
Norr.— Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial
Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donec, until.
h. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed
as parts of speech. Thus, —heus, halloo! 6, oh!
Nore. —Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victis, woe
to the conquered (alas for the conquered) !
INFLECTION
21. Latin is an inflected language.
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its
grammatical relations.
a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination : —
vox, a voice ; vicis, of a voice ; voc, I call; vocat, he calls ; vocet, let him call ;
vocavit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched.
6. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which
are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions,
auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vécis, to the
preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng-
lish : —
frangit, he breaks or is breaking ; frégit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he
bites ; momordit, he bit.+
22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par-
ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension,
and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number,
and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con-
jugated. :
Norn.— Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are,
however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the
changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the
system of inflections.
$§ 23-25] ROOT, STEM, AND BASE 13
23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are
not: inflected and are called Particles.
Norr.— The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter-
rogative), non, né (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate
the form or construction of a sentence.
Root, Stem, and Base
24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached,
is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except
in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be
used without some termination to express them.!
Thus the stem vic- denotes voice ; with -s added it becomes véx, a voice or the
voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vicis, and signifies
of a voice.
Notrer.— The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari-
son with other forms is necessary to determine it.
25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a
word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense,
and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin-
dred languages.”
Thus the root of the stem viéc- is voc, which does not mean fo call, or I call,
or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used
as a part of speech without terminations. With 4-it becomes voca-, the stem of
vocare (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes
the stem of vocatus (called); with atidn- it becomes the stem of vocatidnis (of a
calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of véx, vic-is (a voice:
that by which we call). This stem viéc-, with -alis added, means belonging to a
voice; with -iila, a little voice.
Notr.—In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are
modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by
which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called
Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and
conveying a meaning. .
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa-
rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really
existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -€ (as, rege),
2 For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tishthami, Greek torn, Latin
sistere and stare, German fteben, and English stand.
14 WORDS AND FORMS [$§ 26-30
26. The Stem may be thesame as the root: as induc-is, of a leader,
fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root—
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB,
shave); rég-is, of a king (REG, direct); voc-is, of a voice (voc, call).
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in fuga-,
stem of fuga, flight (FUG + 4-); regi-s, you rule (REG + stem-ending ¥,-);
sini-t, he allows (st + n°/,-).1
3. By two or more of these methods: as in dici-t, he leads (puc + stem-
ending *,-).
4, By derivation and composition, following the laws of development
peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)
27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in
inflection: as, serv- in servus; méns- in ménsa; ign- in ignis.
a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant
stems of nouns (as, rég- in rég-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel,
the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the
inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of ménsa,
ménsa-; that of ignis, igni-.
28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com-
bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus
the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164)
developed.
GENDER
29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three: Masculine,
Feminine, and Neuter.
30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as,
puer (M.), boy; puella (¥.), girl; réx (M.), king; régina (F.), queen.
NorE 1.— Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish
sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliéns, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male
are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine:
as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
Note 2.— A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging toa class:
as, Mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
Nore 3.— Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as,
exercitus (M.), aciés (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; copiae
(x. plur.), troops; senatus (m.), senate; cohors (¥.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.
1 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.
§§ 30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15
b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual
sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined
with the noun: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my
hand.
General Rules of Gender
31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and
Mountains, are masculine: —
pater, father ; Iilius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; Tanua-
rius, January ; Apenninus, the Apennines.
Notr.— Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mé€nsis,
month, being understood: as, Ilanuarius, January.
a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names
Léthé and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain.
6. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender
of their termination: as, Alpés (F.), the Alps; Soracte (N.).
32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees,
and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab-
stract Qualities, are feminine : —
mater, mother ; lalia, Julia; Rima, Rome; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus,
pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; véritas, truth.
a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulm6, Gabii
(plur.) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Ilyricum.
6. A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina-
tion: as, centauréum (N.), centaury; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot ; opalus (M.),
opal.
Notr.— The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina--
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman
women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their géns or house (see § 108. 0).
33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are newter :—
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to
know) ; triste valé, a sad farewell ; hic ipsum diii, this very ‘‘ long.”
34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord-
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common
Gender: as, exsul, exile; bis, ox or cow; paréns, parent.
Notr.— Several names of animals haye a grammatical gender, independent of sex.
These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpés, fox, is
always feminine.
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS | [$§ 35-37
NUMBER AND CASE
35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined
in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nomina-
tive, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.
a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive,
or by the Objective with the preposition of.
c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually
be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.
d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It
is used also with many of the prepositions.
e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from,
by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
f. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g- All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object-
cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (casts obliqui).
h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting the place where: as, Romae, at Rome ; rari, in
the country.
Nore.— Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36, Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ-
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan-
guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given
in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed
with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff.).
37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by
the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending
of the Genitive Singular.
Decu. 1 CHARACTERISTIC 4 Gen. Srna. ae
2 6 iT
3 { or a Consonant is
4 ui iis
5 é éI
a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting
the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the
characteristic vowel.
§§ 38, 39] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS 17
38. The following are General Rules of Declension : —
a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have
-e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs
from the nominative.
b. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in
the plural end in -a.
ec. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m;
the Accusative plural in -s.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the
Dative singular ends in -i.
e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
f. The Genitive plural always ends in -um.
g- Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is short, except in
the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is Jong in the first and
fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in
plural cases.
Case-endings of the Five Declensions
39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are
the following : —!
Dect. I Dect. II Dect. III Dect. IV Dect. V
SINGULAR
F. M. ON. M.,F. N. M. N. F.
N us -um “Ss -us -t -6s
ai Sg (modified stem)
GEN. -ae i -is -iis -&i (-é)
Dat. -ae -6 I -ui(-i) -ii -éi(-6)
Acc. -am -um-um -em(-im) (likenom.) -um i -em
ABL. -a -6 -e (-t) i -G
Voc. -a -e -um (like nom.) -us -~is«=-Es
PLURAL
N.V. -ae i -a -és -a, -ia -iis -ua -é6s
GEN. -arum -6rum -um, -ium -uum -6rum
D.As. -is -is -ibus -ibus(-ubus) -ébus
Acc. -as -O8 -a -&s (-is) -a, -ia -iis -ua -és
1 For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see under the
several declensions.
18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$$ 40-43
FIRST DECLENSION (4-STEMS)
40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends ina-. The
Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in
Greek nouns.
41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : —
stella, r., star
Stem stella-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. stella a star -a
Gen. stellae of a star ’ -ae
Dat. stellae to or for.a star -ae
Acc. — stellam a star -am
As. stella with, from, by, etc. a star a
PLURAL
Nom. stellae stars -ae
Gen. stellarum of stars -Arum
Dar. _ stellis _ to or for stars -is
Acc. stellas stars -s
Asx. _ stellis with, from, by, etc. stars -Is
a. The Latin has no article; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or
simply star.
Gender in the First Declension
42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. Soa
few family or personal names: as, Miiréna, Dolabella, Scaevola!; also, Hadria, the
Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension
43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -ai (dissyllabic), which
is occasionally found: as, aulai. The same ending sometimes occurs in the
. dative, but only as a diphthong.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning Jittle left hand;
but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine.
Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.
§§ 43, 44] FIRST DECLENSION (4-STEMS) 19
6b. An old genitive in -As is preserved in the word familias, often used in
the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family
(plur. patrés familias or familiarum). \
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae; for the plural in -is (cf.
p- 34, footnote): as, Romae, at Rome; Athénis, at Athens.
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -drum, espe-
cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of 4neas, and in compounds
with -cdla and -géna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum, celes-
tials ; Trdiugenum, sons of Troy; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and
drachma.
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in
an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre-
sponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son (deis, filiis). So rarely with other
words, as, liberta, freed-woman; miila, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except
when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents,
etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia.
Norte 1.— The old ending of the ablative singular (-4d) is sometimes retained in
early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda).
Norte 2.— In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis
(as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -dia (as,
Bais from Baiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
44, Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the
Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court); but others retain
traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
Electra, ¥F. synopsis, F. art of music, F.
Nom. Electra (-A) epitomé miisica (-€)
Gren. Electrae epitomés miusicae (-és)
Dar. Electrae epitomae miisicae
Acc. Electram (-an) epitomén miisicam (-én)
Ast. Electra epitomé musica (-€)
Andromache, F. Aineas, M. Persian, M.
Nom. Andromaché (-a) Aenéas Persés (-a)
Gen. Andromachés (-ae) Aenéae Persae
Dar. Andromachae Aenéae Persae
Acc. Andromachén (-am) Aenéan(-am) _—_— Pers&én (-am)
Ast. Andromaché (-4) Aenéa Persé (-a)
Voc, Andromaché (-a) Aenéa (-a) Persa
20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 44-46
Anchises, M. son of Aineas, M. comet, M.
Nom. Anchisés Aeneadés (-a) cométés (-a)
Grex. Anchisae Aeneadae cométae
Dar. Anchisae Aeneadae cométae
Acc. Anchisén (-am) Aeneadén cométén (-am)
Ast. Anchisé (-a) Aeneadé (-&) cométa (-€)
Voc. Anchisé (-a, -a) Aeneadé (-a) cométa
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being
names of plants or arts: as, crambé, cabbage; musicé, music. Most have also regular
Latin forms: as, cométa; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it
occurs, is regular: as, cométae, -arum, etc.
b. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third
declensions: as, Bodtae (genitive of Bodtés, -is), Thiicydidas (accusative plu-
ral of Thicydidés, -is). See § 52. a and § 81.
Nore. — The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Scipiadés, descendant of the Scipios,
is found in Horace. :
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 8-:
as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave),
bello- (stem of bellum, war).
a. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 6 being weakened to ti (see
§§ 6. a, 46. n.?).
6b. In most nouns whose stem ends in rd- the s is not added in the Nomi-
native, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r,! if not already present: as,
ager, stem agrd-?; cf. puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions : erus, hesperus, iiniperus, moérus, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus,
virus, and many Greek nouns.
ec. The stem-vowel 6 has a variant form é,° which is preserved in the
Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us: as, servé, vocative of servus, slave.
Notr.—In composition this € appearsasi. Thus, —belli-ger, warlike (from bell%/.-,
stem of bellum, war).
46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om)
are thus declined : —
1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
2 Compare Greek dypés, which shows the original 0 of the stem.
8 By so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a).
§§ 46, 47] SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS) 21
servus, M., slave bellum, n., war Pompéius, m., Pompey
STEM servo- Stem bello- Srem Pompéio-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. servus (-0s8) -us (-08) bellum -um Pompéius
Gren. servi i belli i Pompéi
Dar. —serv6 -6 bell6 6 Pompéi6
Acc. servum(-om) -um(-om) bellum -um Pompéium
ABL. serv6 6 bell6 -6 Pompéié
Voc. serve -e bellum -um Pompéi (-€i)
PLURAL
Nom. servi i bella -a Pompéi
Gen. servGrum -6rum bell6rum -6Grum Pompéiérum
Dat. servis -is bellis -is Pompéis
Acc. servés -68 bella a Pompéiés
ABL. servis -is bellis -is Pompé€is
Norte 1.— The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -0s, -om, and these
were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations
s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornélio for Cornélios, Cornéliom.
Norte 2.— Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu toc before u. Thus, —ecus (earlier
equos), equi, equd, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.
47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de-
clined : —
puer, m., boy ager, M., field vir, M., man
STEM puero- STEM agro- ¢ STEM Viro-
SINGULAR
; CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. puer ager vir
GEN. pueri agri viri i
Dar. puerd agro ; vir6 -6
Acc. puerum agrum virum -um
Ast. puerd agrd vird -6
PLURAL
Nom. __ pueri agri viri i
GEN. puer6rum agr6rum vir6rum -6rum
Dar. _ pueris agris ' -viris Se
Acc, puer6s agrés virds -68
ABL. __ pueris agris viris -is
Nore.— When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; other-
wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 48, 49
Gender in the Second Declension
48. Nouns ending in -us (-0s), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end-
ing in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -us (-os) are Feminine: as,
Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following:
alvus, belly ; carbasus, linen (pl. carbasa, sails, n.) ; colus, distaff; humus, ground;
vannus, winnowing-shovel.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctus (F. ), the Polar Bear ;
methodus (r.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neuters)
is the same as the nominative: pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus (rarely
M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has
a rare nominative and accusative plural pelagé.
Norr.— The nominative plural neuter cété, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative
singular cétus occurs in Vitruvius.
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -i:
as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at Corinth; for the plural, in -is: as,
Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
b. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age,
in a single -1: as, fili, of a son; Pompéi, of Pompey (Pompéius); but the
accent of the nominative is retained: as, ingé’ni, of genius.
c. Proper names in -ius have -i in the vocative, retaining the accent of
the nominative: as, Vergill. So also, filius, son ; genius, divine guardian: as,
audi, mi fili, hear, my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occa-
sionally used as nouns: as, Lacedaemonie, O Spartan.
Norse. — Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie: as, Lyrcius, vocative Lyrcie.
d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead
of -Orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods;
virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money,
measure, and weight: as, Sévirum, of the Seviri ; nummum, of coins ; iigerum,
of acres.
é. The original ending of the ablative singular (4d) is sometimes found
in early Latin: as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaed), Cneius.
f. Proper names in -dius, -éius, -dius (as, Aurunculéius, B61), are declined
like Pompéius.
1 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably
unknown to Cicero.
§§ 49-52] SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS) 23
g- Deus (M.), god, is thus declined : —
SINGULAR PLURAL
Nom. deus dei (dif), di
Gen. dei de6rum, deum
Dar. ded deis (diis), dis
Acc. deum deds
ABL. ded deis (diis), dis
Norr.— The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said
to have been dee; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive
plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47) : —
adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law ; puer, boy ;
socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; Liber, Bacchus.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural (§ 111. a),
and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, licifer, morning star; -
armiger, squire.
a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from
fpuerus (regularly puer).
b. Vir, man, has genitive viri; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; ves-
per, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening).
c€. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric
names Hibér and Celtibér retain é throughout.
51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the
nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47) : —
ager, field, stem agro-; coluber, snake ; magister, master ;
aper, boar ; conger, sea eel ; minister, servant ;
arbiter, judge ; culter, knife ; oleaster, wild olive ;
auster, south wind ; faber, smith ; onager (-grus), wild ass ;
cancer, crab ; fiber, beaver ; scomber (-brus), mackerel.
caper, goat; liber, book ;
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension
52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -0s, -3s, mas-
culine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in
the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular : —
24 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 52-55
mythos, ™. Athis, m. Délos, F. lion, N.
Sable Athos Delos Ilium
SINGULAR
Nom. mythos Athés (-6) Délos Tlion
Gex. mythi Athé (-) Deli Tliz
Dar. mythd Athé Délé llié
Acc. mython AthG6n (-um) Délon(-um) [lion
Ast. mythd Athé Dél6 Lli6
Voc. mythe Athés Déle Tlion
a. Many names in -és belonging to the third declension have also a
genitive in -I: as, Thiicydidés, Thicydidi (compare § 44. b).
6. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or
Teucrus. ‘The name Panthis has the vocative Panthii (§ 81. 3).
ec. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter-
mination -dn: as, Gedrgicin, of the Georgics.
d. The termination -oe (for Greek -ov) is sometimes found in the nomi-
native plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and
third declensions (see § 82).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND #STEMS)
53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, i, 4, y, c, 1, n,
r, 8, t, x.
54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows: —
a. Mute stems.
b. Liquid and Nasal stems.
a. Pure i-stems.
b. Mixed i-stems.
I. Consonant Stems {
II. 1-Stems {
55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem.
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi-
fications of the stem, of which the most important are —
1. Combination of final consonants: as of ¢ (or g) and s to form x; dux,
ducis, stem duc-; réx, régis, stem rég-.
2. Omission of a final consonant: as of a final nasal; led, lednis, stem
leOn-; Oratid, Sratidnis, stem Oration-.
3. Omission of a final vowel: as of final i; calcar, calcaris, stem calcari-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable: as of a to e; princeps (for -caps),
principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
§§ 56, 57] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS 25
CONSONANT STEMS
Mute Stems
56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the
Nominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before s: as, princep-s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s: as, miles (stem milit-), cistds (stem
custdd-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x: as, dux (for tduc-s), réx (for
trég-s).
a. In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina-
tive and i in the stem: as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).
57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
princeps, c., chief radix, F., root miles, m., soldier
STEM princip- STEM radic- STEM milit-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. _ princeps radix miles 8
Gen. _—s~principis radicis militis -is
Dar. principi radici militi i
Acc. principem radicem militem -em
ABL. principe radice milite -e
PLURAL
Nom. principés radicés milités -és
Gen. _—— principum radicum militum -um
Dar. __ principibus radicibus militibus -ibus
Acc. principés radicés milités -és
Ast. _ principibus radicibus militibus -ibus
custOs, c., guard dux, c., leader réx, M., king
STEM ciistod- STEM duc- STEM rég-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. custds dux réx -8
Gen. custddis ducis régis -is
Dat. _custddi duci régi i
Acc. cist6dem ducem régem -em
Ast. ciistode duce rége -e
26 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 57-60
PLURAL
Nom. custodés ducés régés 3
Gen. custddum ducum régum -um
Dat. ciustddibus ducibus régibus -ibus
Acc. custddés ducés régés -és
AsL. custddibus ducibus régibus -ibus
a. In like manner are declined —
ariés, -etis (M.), ram; comes, -itis (c.), companion; lapis, -idis (m.), stone ;
itidex, -icis (m.), judge; cornix, -icis (F.), raven, and many other nouns.
58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that
are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But, —
a. Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute :
as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in &t- from the Greek:
as, poéma (stem poémat-).
_ 6. The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for tcapot).
59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows: —
cor, N.; heart caput, n., head poéma, N., poem
STEM cord- STEM capit- STEM poémat-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. cor caput poéma
Gren. —cordis capitis potmatis -is
Dat. cordi capiti poémati -i
Acc. cor caput poéma ett
Ast. corde capite poémate -e
PLURAL
Nom. corda capita poémata -a
GEN. capitum poématum -um
Dat. cordibus capitibus poématibus -ibus
Acc. corda capita poémata -a
Ast. cordibus capitibus poématibus -ibus
60. The following irregularities require notice : —
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poéma) frequently
end in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -drum in the geni-
tive plural; as, poématis (for poématibus), poématérum (for poématum).
6. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the gent
tive plural (like cor). See § 103. g. 2.
§§ 61,62] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS 27
Liquid and Nasal Stems (J, , r)
61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal
stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following : —
1. Stems in dn- drop n in the nominative: as in legid, stem legidn-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original 6 in the nominative: as
in virgd, stem virgin-.1
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nom-
inative : as in cornicen, stem cornicin-.1
4, Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, pater, stem patr-.?
62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows: —
consul, m., consul 1e6, M., lion virgo, F., maiden pater, m., father
STEM consul- Stem ledn- STEM virgin- STEM patr-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. cdnsul led virgo pater —
Gen. cdnsulis lednis virginis patris -is
Dat. cdnsuli ledni virgini patri i
Acc. cdnsulem leOnem virginem patrem -em
Ast. cdnsule ledne virgine patre -e
PLURAL
Nom. cdnsulés lednés virginés patrés -és
Gen. cdnsulum leGnum virginum patrum -um
Dar. cdnsulibus lednibus virginibus patribus -ibus
Acc. cdnsulés lednés virginés patrés -és
Ast. cdnsulibus lednibus virginibus patribus -ibus
Nore 1.— Stems in I1-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far,
farris; mel, mellis.
Notre 2.— A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as
in -r: as, honds or honor, arbés or arbor.
Nore 3.— Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative.
1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with
which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and
in part upon the influence of analogy.
2 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened
to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and
vocative singular show thee. But cf. Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter), quoted by
Priscian as old forms.
28 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$$ 68-65
63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nomina-
tive is the same as the stem.
Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in
nomen, stem nodmin-.
2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-.1
64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
nomen, N., name genus, N., race corpus, N., body aequor, N., sea
STEM nomin- STEM gener- STEM corpor- STEM aequor-
SINGULAR
Nom. nomen genus corpus aequor
Gen. ndminis generis corporis aequoris
Dat. nomini generi corpori aequori
Acc. nomen genus corpus aequor
Ast, nodmine genere corpore - aequore
PLURAL
Nom. nodmina genera corpora aequora
Gen. ndominum generum corporum aequorum
Dat. ndminibus generibus corporibus aequoribus
Acc. nodmina genera corpora aequora
Apt. nominibus generibus . corporibus aequoribus
So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
Note. — The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive
plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, titer, venter; glis,
mas, mis, [frén]; also virés (plural of vis: see §79).
1-STEMS
65. Nouns of this class include —
1. Pure i-Stems:
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic? nouns in -is and four in -er.
b. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems,
in the plural like i-stems.
1 These were originally s-stems (cf. § 15. 4).
2 I.e. haying the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular.
§§ 66-68] THIRD DECLENSION: PURE [-STEMS 29
: Pure Stems
66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the
Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.
Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i
and insert e before r. ‘These are imber, linter, iter, venter.
67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sitis, F., thirst _ turris, F., tower ignis, M., fire imber, m., rain
STEM siti- Stem turri- STEM igni- STEM imbri-
SINGULAR
Nom. sitis turris ignis imber
Gen. sitis turris ignis imbris
Dart. siti turri igni imbri
Acc. sitim turrim (-em) ignem imbrem
Ast. siti turri (-e) igni (-e) imbri (-e)
PLURAL
Nom. turrés eignés imbrés
GEN. turrium ignium imbrium
Dart. turribus ignibus imbribus
Acc. turris (-és) ignis (-€s) imbris (-és)
ABL. turribus ignibus imbribus
«
68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with
final i changed to e: as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns? in
which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel
and shorten the preceding a: as, animal, stem animili-.
a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the
genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal,
animall, -ia, -ium.
1 Such are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minital,
puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribiinal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, laciinar, laquear,
licar, liminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia,
genudlia, spOnsdlia ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals,
as, Saturnalia.
2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focdle, ndvale, penetrale, 14mAle, sciitale, tibiale;
alveare, capillare, cochleare.
30 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 69-71
69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows: —
sedile, n., seat animal,Nn.,animal _ calcar,N., spur
STEM sedili- STEM animili- STEM calcari-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. _ sedile animal calear -e or —
GEN. sedilis animialis calcaris -is
Dar. sedili animali caleari i
Acc. _ sedile animal calear -e or —
ABL. sedili animali calcari i
PLURAL
Nom. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia
Gen. _ sedilium animalium calearium -ium
Dart. _ sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus
Acc. sedilia animalia calearia -ia
Asi. _ sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus
Mixed 7-Stems
70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their
i-forms in the singular, or censonant stems that have assumed i-
forms in the plural.
Nore. —It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla-
tive singular, -ium in the genitive! and -is or -és in the accusative
plural. They include the following: —
1. Nouns in -és, gen. -is.?
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as, cliéns, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive -tatis (genitive plural usually -um)?: as, civitas.
5. Penatés, optimatés, and nouns denoting birth or abode ( patrials) in -As,
-is, plural -atés, -ités: as, Arpinds, plural Arpinatés; Quiris, plural Quirités.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: dis,
fraus, glis, lis, mas, miis, nix, nox, strix, vis.
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having
-ium, some -um, and some both.
2 These are acinacés, aedés, alc&és, caedés, cdutés, cladés, compagés, contagés, famés,
félés, fidés (plural), indolés, labés, lués, mélés, mdlés, nibés, palumbés, prolés, propagés,
pubés, sédés, saepés, sordés, stragés, strués, subolés, tabés, torqués, tudés, vatés, vehés,
_ veprés, verrés, vulpés; aedés has also nominative aedis.
§§ 72-75] THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED I-STEMS 31
72. Nouns of this class are thus declined :—
nibés, F., cloud urbs, ¥F., city nox, F., night cliéns, m., client aetas, F., age
STEM nub(i)- STEM urb(i)- Sremnoct(i)- Srem client(i)- STEM aetat(i)-
SINGULAR
Nom. niubés urbs nox cliéns aetas
Gen. niubis urbis noctis clientis aetatis
Dar. nubi urbi nocti clienti aetati
Acc. nubem urbem noctem clientem aetatem
AsL. nube urbe nocte cliente aetate
PLURAL
Nom. nwubés urbés noctés clientés aetatés
Gen. nubium urbium noctium clientium ! aetatum 2
Dat. nubibus urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus
Acc, nubis(-és) urbis(-és) noctis(-és) clientis(-és) aetitis(-és)
Asi. nubibus urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus
Summary of +Stems
73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable
at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disap-
peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them.
The nominative plural (-is) ? was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular
(-im), next the ablative (-i); while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were
retained in almost all.
74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms : —
a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack
it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.
b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
c. The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -is.
d. The accusative singular (m. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).
e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and
feminines, ends in -i (see § 76).
75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i-
stems (M. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, -am ; servus,
-um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the
consonant declension).
1 Rarely clientum, 2 Also aetatium. Cf. § 71. 4.
8 An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2),
32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 75-78
a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In biris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim; and in
amussim.
b. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis,
turris, seciiris, sémentis, and rarely in many other words.
76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would
be -i: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75) ; also seciiris.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequ4lis, annalis, aqudlis, cén-
sularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribilis.
8. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar: except baccar, iubar, réte, and sometimes mare.
b. The ablative in -i is found sometimes —
1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,! imber, lix, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis,
sémentis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis, famili-
aris, natalis, rivalis, sapiéns, tridéns, trirémis, vocalis.
Note 1.— The ablative of famés is always famé (§ 105. ec). The defective mane has
sometimes mani (§ 103. b. N.) as ablative.
Nore 2.— Most names of towns in -€ (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a moun-
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caeréte.
Note 3.— Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene.
77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -és,? but -is is
occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common,
but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both
cases is -eis (diphthong).
78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural:
1. Always, — canis, iuvenis,® ambagés, mare (once only, otherwise want-
ing), volucris; regularly, sédés, vatés.
2. Sometimes, — apis, caedés, cladés, ménsis, strués, subolés.
3. Very rarely,—patrials in -As, -atis; -is, -itis; as, Arpinads, Arpinatum ;
Samnis, Samnitum.
1 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (§ 401).
2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -és (preserved in Greek in
consonant stems, as éprvé, 8prvy-es), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -és in the
Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural ges). This -6s was extended to consonant
stems in Latin. 8 Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems.
--§ 79)
THIRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS
Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension
33
79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi-
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined:
Nom.
GEN.
Dar.
Acc.
ABL.
Nom.
GEN.
Dar.
Acc.
ABL.
Nom.
GEN.
Dart.
Acc.
ABL.
Nom.
GEN.
Dar.
Acc,
ABL.
bos, c.
ox, cow
bis
bdvis
bovi
bovem
bove
cattle
bovés
boum
bébus (biibus)
bovés
bdbus (bibus)
sis, Cc.
swine
sus
suis
sui
suem
sue
sués
suum
subus (suibus)
sués
subus (suibus)
vis, F.
Force
vis
vis (rare)
vi (rare)
vim
vi
strength
virés
Virium
viribus
viris (-és)
viribus
senex, M. caro, F. OSs, N.
old man Jlesh bone
SINGULAR
senex card os
senis carnis ossis
seni . carni ossi
senem carnem os
sene carne osse
PLURAL
senés carmmés ossa
senum _ carnium ossium
senibus carnibus ossibus
senés carnés ossa
senibus carnibus ossibus
Iuppiter, m. nix, F.
Jupiter snow
SINGULAR
Tuppiter ! nix
Tovis nivis
Tovi nivi
Iovem nivem
Tove nive
PLURAL
nivés
nivium
nivibus
nivés
nivibus
1 Also Iiipiter.
iter, N.
march
iter
itineris
itineri
iter
itinere
itinera
itinerum
itineribus
itinera
itineribus
34 ' _ DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 79-81
a. Two vowel-stems in i-, gri- and si-, which follow the third declension,
add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems: gris has also
a nominative gruis; siis has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative
plural, griis has only gruibus.
b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative
(bos, bovis).
In nay- (nau-) an i is added (nAvis, -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67).
In IWy- (= Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes i in Ii-piter (for -pater),
genitive Idvis, etc.; but the form Iuppiter is preferred.
c. In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (N.), supelléx, supelléctilis
(F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis,
from a longer; so that these words show a combination of forms from two
distinct stems.
d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g
uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the
stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
e. Vas (N.), vasis, keeps s throughout; plural vasa, vasbrum. A dative
plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum.
The Locative Case
80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends
in the singular in -i or -e, in the plural in -ibus: as, riri, in the
country ; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at T’ralles.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names —
retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially —
. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos.
. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera.
. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Periclé, Orpheu, Atla.
. Nominative plural in -és, as, hérdés.
. Accusative plural in -ds, as, hérdas.
orf Whe
1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -i, which became -€ in Latin. Thus
the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in
-1 (from -1d) was an analogical formation (cf. -4 from -ad, -d from -0d), properly belong-
ing to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was
ascribed to forms in -i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of
o-stems (as, Corinthi, § 49. a); but forms in -€ also survived in this use. The plural
-bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func-
tion. Cf. Philippis (§ 49. a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, either
locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athénis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed
on the analogy of 0-stems.
§§ 82, 83] THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS 35
82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : —
hérés, M., hero lampas, F., torch basis, F., base tigris, c., tiger nais, ¥., naiad
Stem héro- Sremilampad- Stem basi- StTEM { bi ra STEM naid-
tigri
SINGULAR
Nom. hérds ~ lampas basis tigris nais
Gen. _ hérodis lampados baseds tigris(-idos) naidos
Dat. _—hérdi lampadi basi tigri naidi
Acc. hérda lampada basin tigrin(-ida) naida
Ast. hérde lampade basi tigri(-ide) naide
PLURAL
Nom. hérdés lampadés basés tigrés naidés
Gen. hérdum lampadum _basium(-e6n) tigrium naidum
D.,A.1 hérdibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus
Acc, _hérdas lampadas basis(-€is) tigris(-idas) niaidas
Proper NAMES
Nom. Did6é Simois Capys
Gen. Diddnis(Didis) Simoentis Capyos
Dar. Diddni(Dido) Simoenti Capyi
Acc. Didénem(-6) Simoenta Capyn
Ast. Diddne(-d) Simoente Capyé
Voc. Didd Simois Capy
Nom. Orpheus Periclés Paris
Gen. Orphei(-eds) Periclis(-) Paridis
Dar. Orphei(-e6) Pericli(-i) Paridi
Acc. Orphea(-um) Periclem (-ea, -én) Patads
Ast. Orphed Pericle Paride, Pari
Voc. Orpheu Periclés(-é) Pari
Notr.— The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.
83. Other peculiarities are the following : —
a. Delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -inis; Salamis, -is (F.),
has ace. Salamina.
b. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as,
tigris, gen. -idis (-idos) or -is; acc. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in); abl. -ide or -i.
But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. -idem (-ida),
abl. -ide, — not -im or -i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
1 Dative, hérdisin (once only).
86 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 83-86
ec. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamem-
ndn (or Agamemnd), genitive -Snis, accusative -dna.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -6n: as, horizén, Xenophén;
but a few are occasionally Latinized into 6n- (nom. -d): as, Dracd, -dnis ;
Antiphé, -dnis.
e. Like Simois are declined stems in pant, ent-, and a few in int- (nomi-
native in -As, -is, -iis): as, Atlas, -antis; Trapeziis, -intis.
f. Some words fluctuate between ditcsont declensions: as Orpheus be-
tween the second and the third.
g- -6n is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books: as,
Metamorphisedn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid’s well-known poem); Gedrgicon,
of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned
by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi-
nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen-
der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their
principal exceptions, are the following: —?
85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -és, -er, -%s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen.
-icis): as, color, flis, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis).
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Feminine are arbor; cés, dds; linter.
b. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor; 6s (Gris); also os (ossis) ;
cadaver, iter, tiiber, iber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as,
acer, papaver.
86. Feminine are nouns in-4, -ds, -és, -is, -fis, -x, and in -s preceded
by a consonant: as, legi6, civitds, niibés, avis, virtiis, arx, urbs. The
nouns in -d are mostly those in -d6 and -gd, and abstract and collec-
tive nouns in -i6.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are leG, lednis; ligd, Snis ; serm6, -dnis; also card6, harpags,
marg6, ord6, turbd ; and concrete nouns in -id: as, pugid, inid, papilid ; ?
acinacés, ariés, celés, lebés, pariés, pés ;
1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.
2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -Gnis) are masculine by signification: as, gerd, carrier;
restid, ropemaker; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicerd, Naso. See
§§ 236. c, 255.
§§ 86-89] FOURTH DECLENSION 37
Nouns in -nis and -guis : as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis,
énsis, fascis, follis, fistis, lapis, ménsis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis ;
mis ;
calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85);
déns, fons, mins, pons.
Nors.— Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives
or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. ménsis), M., April;
oriéns (sc. s0l), M., the east; annalis (sc. liber), m., the year-book.
b. Neuter are vas (vasis); cris, itis, pis, ris, tis.
87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -l, -n, -ar, -ur, -tis: as, poéma, mare,
animal, ndmen, calcar, rdbur, corpus; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are sal, sol, pecten, vultur, lepus.
6. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).
FOURTH DECLENSION
88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-.
This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Femi-
nine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for
nominative the simple stem, but with i (long). |
89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows:
manus, F., hand lacus, m., lake genii, n., knee
STEM manu- STEM lacu- STEM genu-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. manus lacus ~—--us gent -a
Gen. manis laciis -iis genis -iis
Dar. manui(-i) lacui(-i) -ui(-i) gent -ti
Acc. manum lacum -um gent i
Ast. mani laeti -ii gent a
PLURAL
Nom. manis lactis -iis | genua -ua
Gen. manuum lacuum -uum genuum -uum
Dar. manibus lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibus
Acc, maniis lactis -iis genua ua
Ast. manibus lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibus
38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 90-93
Gender in the Fourth Declension
90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.
Exceptions: The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idis (plural),
manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatris (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of
plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.
91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are corni, geni,
pect (§ 105. f), veri.
Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension
92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth
Declension require notice : —
a. A genitive singular in -i (as of the second declension) sometimes
occurs in nouns in -tus: as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatis).
b. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one sylla-
ble, and may then be written -um: as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum.
c. The dative and ablative plural in -iibus are retained in partus and
tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words;
portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of
the second declension: as, ficus, fig, genitive ficitis or fici.
e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in
-uom occur rarely: as, senatuis, senatuos; fluctuom.
f. The ablative singular ended anciently in -id (cf. § 48... 1): as,
magistratid.
93. Domus (F.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence
it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions:
SINGULAR PLURAL
Nom. domus domis
Gen. domiis (domi, loc.) domuum (dom6rum)
Dat. domui(domd) domibus
Acc. domum domés (domiis)
Ast. domé (domi) domibus
Nore 1.— The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.
Norte 2.— The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus; domdrum is late or poetic.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians
as occurring in certain cases.
§§ 94-96] FIFTH DECLENSION (Z-STEMS) 39
94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from
verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (§$ 238. 6):
cantus, song, CAN, cand, sing; casus (for fcad-tus), chance, cap, cad, fall ;
exsulatus, exile, from exsuld, to be an exile (exsul).
a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy:
consulatus (as if from tcdnsuld, -dre), sendtus, incestus.
b. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form
the Supines of verbs (§ 159.5): as, spectatum, petitum; dictii, visi.
ec. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: as,
iussii (med), by (my) command ; so iniussii (populi), without (the people’s) order.
Of some only the dative is used: as, divisui.
FIFTH DECLENSION (é-STEMS)
95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in é-, which
appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem
by adding s.
96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : —
rés, F., thing diés, m., day fidés, r., faith
STEM ré- Stem dié- Srem fidé-
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
Nom. rés diés fidés -és
Grex. rei diéi (dié) fid&i -8i (8)
Dar. réi diéi (dié) fidéi -€i (-€)
Acc. rem diem fidem -em
ABL. ré dié fidé -é
PLURAL
Nom. rés diés -és
Gen. rérum diérum -6rum
Dar. rébus diébus . -6bus
Acc. rés diés -6s
Apt. rébus diébus -6bus
Notre. — The é of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fidés,
spés, rés, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e
is always short.
40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 97-99
Gender in the Fifth Declension
97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except
diés (usually M.), day, and meridiés (M.), noon.
a. Diés is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi-
cating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general:
as, cOnstitiita dié, on a set day; longa diés, a long time.
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
98. The following peculiarities require notice : —
a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only diés and rés are declined through-
out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or
accusative in aciés, effigiés, Gluviés, faciés, glaciés, seriés, speciés, spés.!
b. The Locative form of this declension ends in -é. It is found only in
certain adverbs and expressions of time: —
hodié, to-day ; dié quarté (old, quarti), the fourth day ;
perendié, day after to-morrow ; pridié, the day before.
ce. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns
have forms of both: as, materia, -iés; saevitia,-iés. The genitive and dative
in -€i are rarely found in these words.
d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension: as,
requiés, satiés (also satias, genitive -atis), plébés (also plébs, genitive plébis), —
famés, genitive famis, ablative famé.
Norr.—In the genitive and dative -€i (-€i) was sometimes contracted into -€:
as, tribiinus plébéi, tribune of the people (plébés). Genitives in -i and -€ also occur:
as, dii (Aen. i. 636), plébi-scitum, acié (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni-
tive in -€s are found (cf. -ds in the first declension, § 43. b). The dative has rarely -é,
and a form in -i is cited.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS
Nouns wanting in the Plural
99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number
only (singuldria tantum). ‘These are —
1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Cesar; Gallia, Gaul.
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, gold ;
aér, air; triticum, wheat.
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitid, ambition; fortitidd, courage; calor, heat.
1 The forms faciérum, speciérum, speciébus, spérum, spébus, are cited by grammarians,
also spérés, spéribus, and some of these occur in late authors. -
§§ 100-102] DEFECTIVE NOUNS 41
100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in
some other sense.
a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to twe or more persons
or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : —
_ duodecim Caesarés, the twelve Cesars.
Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).
Castores, Castor and Pollux; lovés, images of Jupiter.
b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular
objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nivés, snowflakes ; or different kinds of a thing :
as, derés, airs (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality,
or the like: —
quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; tia, periods of rest ; caldrés,
frigora, times of heat and cold.
Nouns wanting in the Singular
101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the
Plural (plirdlia tantum). Such are —
1. Many names of towns: as, Athénae (Athens), Thirii, Philippi, Véii.
2. Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games ; Baccha-
nalia, feast of Bacchus; Quinquatris, festival of Minerva; lidi Romani, the
Roman Games.
3. Names of classes: as, optimatés, the upper classes; maidrés, ancestors ;
liberi, children; penatés, household gods; Quirités, citizens (of Rome).
4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artiis, joints; divi-
tiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors ; forés, double-doors ; angustiae,
a narrow pass (narrows); moenia, city walls.
Nore 1.— Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English
nouns in the singular number: as, déliciae, delight, darling; faucés, throat; fidés, lyre
(also singular in poetry) ; insidiae, ambush ; cervicés, neck ; viscera, flesh.
Note 2.— The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, ora (for 6s), the face ; scéptra (for
scéptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.
102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corre-
sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense:
1. As noun, to denote a single object: pict Bacchanal, a spot ‘sacred to
Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat.
2. As adjective: as, Caté Maior, Cato the Elder.
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder;
valya, a door; artus, a joint.
42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§ 103
Nouns Defective in Certain Cases
103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : ! —
a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular:
fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus.
Norte 1.— The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative.
Nore 2.— The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur.
b. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : —
1. In the nominative singular: glis (r.).
2. In the genitive singular: dicis, nauci (N.).
8. In the dative singular: divisui (m.) (cf. § 94. ¢).
4. In the accusative singular: amussim (M.); vénum (dative vénd in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular: pond6 (N.); mane (N.); asti (m.), by craft; iussi,
iniussi, nati, and many other verbal nouns in -us (m.) (§ 94. ¢).
Nore. — Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mani is
used as ablative. Pondd with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A
nominative singular astus and a plural astiis occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural: infitias.
c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): —
1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (F.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular: spontis (rare), sponte (F.).
8. In the accusative singular and plural: dicam, dicas (Fr.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural: fords, foris (F.) (cf. forés), used as
adverbs.
d. Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : —
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular : impetus, -um, -ii (M.)?;
lués, -em, -é (F.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : gratés, -ibus (Fr).
8. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : iigera, -um, -ibus
(x.); but iigerum, etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. 0).
e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : —
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicidnis, -i, -em, -e (F.).
f. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular : —
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frigis,
-i, -em, -e (F.) ; opis, -1 (once only), -em, -e (r. ; nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, -em, -e (F.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative: cassem, -e (F.) ; sordem, -e (F.).
4, Nouns found in the ablative only: ambage (r.); fauce (r.); obice (c.).
g- Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural : —
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.
2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.
§§ 103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative
only : fel (fella), far (farra), hordeum (hordea), iis, broth (iiira), mel (mella), murmur
(murmura), pis (pira), ris (rira), tis or this (tira).
Notr.— The neuter iis, right, has only itira in classical writers, but a very rare geni-
tive plural itirum occurs in old Latin.
2. calx, cor, cds, crux, fax, faex, lanx, liix, nex, ds (dris),1 os (ossis),? pax, pix,
rds, sal, sdl, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
8. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural
(see § 98. a).
h. Nouns defective in both singular and plural : —
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative,
accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis, -em, -e; -és, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular;
genitive plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -és, -ibus.?
VARIABLE NOUNS
104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.
105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called heteroclites.4
a. Colus (F.), distaff; domus (F.), house (see § 93), and many names
of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
6. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third: as, itigerum, -i, +,
ablative + or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris;
sequester, genitive -tri and -tris; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, -i (§ 79. e).
c. Some vary between the Béeond: Third, and Fourth: as, penus, penum,
genitive peni and penoris, ablative peni.
d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, —requiés has geni-
tive -€tis, dative wanting, accusative -étem or -em, ablative -~€ (once -€te) ;
famés, regularly of the third declension, has ablative famé (§ 76. n. 1),
and piibés (m.) has once dative pubé (in Plautus).
f. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, ete., but
also nominative peci, ablative pecii; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
g- Many vary between different stems of the same declension: as, femur
(N.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from tfemen); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris,
iocinoris, iecoris; minus (N.), plural miinera and minia.
1 The ablative plural Oribus is rare, the classical idiom being in dre omnium, in every-
body’s mouth, etc., not in Gribus omnium.
2 The genitive plural ossium is late; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem)
is early and late.
3 An old nominative daps is cited. _
4 That is, ‘‘nouns of different inflections’’ (€repos, another, and kXlvw, to inflect).
44
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[$§ 106, 107
106, Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.!
a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um:
balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many
others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the
Singular : —
balneum (n.), bath ;
caelum (N.), heaven ;
carbasus (F.), a sail ;
délicium (N.), pleasure ;
epulum (n.), feast ;
frénum (N.), @ bit;
iocus (M.), @ jest ;
locus (M.), place ;
rastrum (N.), a rake ;
balneae (F.), baths (an establishment),
caeloés (mM. acc., Lucr.).
carbasa (N.) (-drum), sails,
déliciae (F.), pet.
epulae (F.), feast.
fréni (m.) or fréna (Nn.), a bridle.
ioca (N.), ioci (m.), jests.
loca (N.), loci (m., usually topics, passages in books).
rastri (M.), rastra (N.), rakes.
Norx.— Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.
107. Many nouns are found in the Plural in a peculiar sense: —
aedés, -is (F.), temple ;
aqua (r.), water ;
auxilium (N.), help ;
bonum (N.), a good ;
carcer (M.), dungeon ;
castrum (n.), fort;
comitium (N.), place of assembly ;
copia (r.), plenty ;
fidés (F.), harp-string ;
finis (m.), end;
fortiina (F.), fortune ;
gratia (r.), favor (rarely, thanks) ;
hortus (m.), @ garden;
impedimentum (N.) hindrance ;
littera (F.), letter (of alphabet) ;
locus (m.), place [plural loca (N.)];
lidus (M.), sport;
mos (M.), habit, custom ;
natalis (m.), birthday ;
opera (F.), work ;
[ops,] opis (r.), help (§ 103. f. 1);
pars (F.), part;
rostrum (N.), beak of a ship ;
sal (mM. or N.), salt;
tabella (r.), tablet ;
aedés, -ium, house.
aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.
auxilia, auxiliaries.
bona, goods, property.
carcerés, barriers (of race-course).
castra, camp.
comitia, an election (town-meeting).
copiae, stores, troops.
fidés, lyre.
finés, bounds, territories.
fortiinae, possessions.
gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
horti, pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, baggage.
litterae, epistle, literature.
loci,? topics, places in books.
lidi, public games.
morés, character.
natalés, descent, origin.
operae, day-laborers (‘‘ hands’’).
opés, resources, wealth.
partés, part (on the stage), party.
rostra, speaker’s platform.
salés, witticisms.
tabellae, documents, records.
1 That is, “‘ of different genders” (érepos, another, and yévos, gender).
2 In early writers the regular plural.
§ 108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45
NAMES OF PERSONS
108. A Roman had regularly three names:— (1) the praendmen,
or personal name; (2) the ndmen, or name of the géns or house ;
(8) the cdgndmen, or family name :.—
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicer6 we have —
Marcus, the praendmen, like our Christian or given name;
Tullius, the ndmen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian géns (or
house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus ;
Ciceré, the cdgndmen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
Norr.— When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cégnd-
men is usually put in the plural: as, Piblius et Servius Sullae.
a.. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or
distinction, or to show adoption from another géns.
_ Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Piblius Cornélius Scipid
Africanus Aemilianus: Africanus, from his exploits in Africa; Aemilianus, as
adopted from the Amilian géns.1
Note.— The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi-
tions, but later grammarians invented the word dgnoémen to express them.
6. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were
known only by the ndmen of their géns. .
Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second
daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia
tertia, and so on.
ec. The commonest prenomens are thus abbreviated : —
A. Aulus. L. Licius. Q. Quintus.
App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius) (cf. § 1. a). M’. Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
D. Decimus. N. (Num.) Numerius’ T. Titus.
K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
Note 1.— In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G
(§ 1. a).
1In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the
praenémina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name
of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL-
LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepds Marci pro-
nepds Cornélia tribii Cicerd. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as
that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is
usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia
Servi Sulpicii (Suet. Iul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli
(Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
46 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [$§ 109, 110
ADJECTIVES
109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de-
clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different
forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and
case. Thus,—
bonus puer, the good boy.
bona puella, the good girl.
bonum dénum, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen-
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (@- AND 0-STEMS)
110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (a- and
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager;
in the Feminine like stella; and in the Neuter like bellum.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen-
sions is bonus, -a, -um, which.is thus declined : —
bonus, bona, bonum, good
MASCULINE
FEMININE NEUTER
Stem bono- STEM bona- StrEM bono-
SINGULAR
Nom. bonus bona bonum
GEN. boni bonae boni
Dar. bons bonae bond
Acc. bonum bonam bonum
ABL. bond bona bond
Voc. bone bona bonum
PLURAL
Nom. boni bonae bona
GEN. bonérum bondrum boné6rum
Dar. bonis bonis bonis
Acc. bonés bonas bona
ABL. bonis ~ bonis bonis
§§ 110, 111] FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 47
Nore. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (-quos), -qua, -cum (-quom), accusative
-cum (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. b and 46. n.2). Thus, —
Nom. propincus (-quos) propinqua propincum (-quom)
GEN. propinqui propinquae propingui, etc.
But most modern editions disregard this principle.
a. The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and
the Vocative in -ie; not in -i, as in nouns (cf. § 49. b, c); as, Lacedaemonius,
-il, -ie.
Nors.— The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. § 145).
111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative
Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows: —
miser, misera, miserum, wretched
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
SrEmM misero- STEM misera- STEM misero-
SINGULAR
Nom. miser misera miserum
GEN. miseri miserae miseri
Dat. miser6 miserae miser6
Acc. miserum miseram miserum
ABL. miser6 misera miser6
PLURAL
Nom. miseri miserae misera
GEN. miser6rum miserarum miser6rum
Dat. miseris miseris miseris
Acc. miser6s miseras misera
ABL. miseris miseris miseris
a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros-
perus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger: as, saeti-
ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing ; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to
the stem; but in dextra it is often omitted: as, dextra manus, the right hand.
Nore. — Stems in éro- (as précérus), with morigérus, propérus, have the regular nomi-
native masculine in -us.
6. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use:
cétera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except
in certain phrases: as, poster6 dié, the next day.
Nors.— An ablative feminine in -6 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica
octophoré (Verr. y. 27).
48 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [$§ 112, 118
112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative
Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows : —
niger, nigra, nigrum, black
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
STEM nigro- STEM nigra- STEM nigro-
SINGULAR
Nom. niger nigra nigrum
Gen. nigri nigrae nigri
Dart. nigr6 nigrae nigr6
Acc. nigrum nigram nigrum
ABL. nigr6 nigra nigrd
PLURAL
Nom. nigri nigrae nigra
GEN. nigr6rum nigrarum nigr6rum
Dart. nigris nigris nigris
Acc. nigr6s nigras nigra
ABL. nigris nigris nigris
a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, créber, faber, glaber, integer, lidicer,
macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer ; also the pos-
sessives noster, vester (§ 145).
113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have
the Genitive Singular in -ius and the Dative in -i in all genders:
alius (N. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terius, the other.
nillus, no, none. illus, any. neuter, -trius, neither.
solus, alone. iinus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined : —
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. tnus una unum uter utra utrum
GEN. tnius unius unius utrius utrius utrius
Dar. uni uni uni utri utri utzi
Acc. tnum unam tinum utrum utram utrum
ABL. und una und utr6 utra utré
Nom. alius alia aliud alter altera alterum
Gen. _ alius alius alius alterius alterius alterius
Dar. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri
Acc. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum
Api. alid alia ali6d alterd altera alterd
7
§§ 113-115] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 49
a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).
b. The genitive in -ius, dative in -i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in
origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and § 146).
c. Thei of the genitive ending -ius, though originally long, may be made
short in verse; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
d. Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense
the adjective aliénus, belonging to another, another's.
e. In compounds —as alteruter——sometimes both parts are declined,
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
Nore. — The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine,
alio. Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius, aliud).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND z-STEMS)
114, Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified : —
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, — one
for each gender: as, acer, Acris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, — masculine and feminine the same:
as, levis (M., F.), leve (N.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination, — the same for all three genders: as,
atrox.
a. Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain
in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and
in the accusative plural regularly -is (see §§ 73 and 74).}
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined : —
acer, Acris, acre, keen, Stem Acri-
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. Acer acris acre acrés acrés acria
GEN. acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium
Dart. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus
Acc. acrem acrem acre acris (-6s) Acris (-6s) 4Acria
ABL. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus
1 But the forms of some are doubtful.
50 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 115-117
a, Like acer are declined the following stems in ri-: —
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paliister, pedester, puter, saliiber, silvester,
terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, October (cf.
§ 66).
Nore 1.—This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early
Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes
used for both genders: as, coetus alacris(Enn.). In others, as faenebris, finebris, illis-
tris, ligubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these
are declined like levis (§ 116).
NotE 2.— Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a
noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.
116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined : —
levis, leve, light, Stem levi-
SINGULAR PLURAL
M., F. N. M., F. N.
Nom. levis leve levés levia
Gen. levis levis levium levium
Dar. levi levi levibus levibus
Acc. levem leve levis (-és) levia
Ast. levi levi levibus levibus
Notr.— Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -e
in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One Termination
_ 117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con-
sonant stems; but most of them, except ic as nba have the
following forms of i-stems:—1
-i in the ablative singular (but often -e);
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ;
-ium in the genitive plural;
-is (as well as -és) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or r-, form the nominative singu-
lar from the stem by adding s: as, atréx (stem atréc-+s), egéns (stem
egent- + s).?
b. Here belong the present participles in -ns(stem nt-)?: as, am&ns, monéns.
They are declined like egéns (but cf. § 121).
1 For details see § 121. 2 Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s.
§§ 118, 119] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 51
118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : —
atrox, fierce, Stem atroc- egéns, needy, Stem egent-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N.
Nom. atrox atrox egéns egéns
Gen. atrdcis atrocis egentis egentis
Dat. = atroci atroci egenti egenti
Acc. atrocem atrox egentem egéns
Ast. atrodci (-e) atrOci (-e) egenti (-e) egenti (-e)
PLURAL
Nom. atrdcés atrocia egentés egentia
Gey. atrodcium atrocium egentium egentium
Dar. atrdcibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus
Acc. _atrocis (-és) atrocia egentis (-€s) egentia
AsL. atrocibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus
119. Other examples are the following : —
concors, harmonious
STEM concord-
praeceps, headlong
STEM praecipit-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N.
Nom. concors concors praeceps praeceps
Gen. concordis concordis praecipitis praecipitis
Dar. concordi concordi praecipiti praecipiti
Acc. concordem concors praecipitem praeceps
AsL. concordi concordi © praecipiti praecipiti
PLURAL
Nom. concordés concordia praecipités praecipitia
Gen. concordium concordium [praecipitium ]?
Dar. concordibus concordibus praecipitibus praecipitibus
Acc. concordis (-6s) concordia praecipitis (-6s) praecipitia
Ast. concordibus concordibus praecipitibus praecipitibus
1 Given by grammarians, but not found.
52
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
ABL.
Nom.
GEN.
Dart.
Acc.
ABL.
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§ 119
iéns, going par, equal dives, rich
STEM eunt- STEM par- Stem divit-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N. M., F. N.
iéns iéns par par dives dives
euntis euntis paris” paris divitis divitis
eunti eunti pari pari diviti diviti
euntem iéns parem par divitem dives
eunte (i) eunte(-I) pari pari divite divite
PLURAL
euntés euntia parés paria divités [ditia]
euntium euntium parium parium divitum divitum
euntibus euntibus paribus paribus divitibus divitibus
euntis (-€s) euntia paris (-6s) paria divitis (-és) [ditia]
euntibus euntibus paribus paribus divitibus divitibus
.
iiber, fertile vetus, old
StTEm iber- STEM veter-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N.
Nom. uber tiber vetus vetus
Gen. uberis uberis veteris veteris
Dar. uberi tiberi veteri veteri
Acc. tberem aber veterem vetus
Asi. uberi! uberi* vetere (-I) _ vetere (-i)
PLURAL
Nom. uberés tibera veterés vetera
Gen. wtberum tiberum veterum veterum
Dat. itberibus uberibus veteribus veteribus
Acc. tberés tibera veterés vetera
tiberibus uberibus veteribus veteribus
ABL.
Nore. — Of these vetus is originally ans-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded
itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for {bi-corpos), dégener (for +dé-genes).
1 An ablative in -e is very rare.
§§ 120, 121] DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES 58
Declension of Comparatives
120. Comparatives. are declined as follows : —
melior, better plis, more
SrEem melior- for melios- Stem plur- for plis-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N.
Nom. melior melius ao pliis
Gey. melidris melidris aa pluiris
Dar. melidri meliori — —
Acc. melidrem melius —— plis
Asi, moeliore (-i) melidre (-1) a plure
PLURAL
Nom. melidrés meliora plurés plira
Gen. melidrum melidrum plirium plirium
Dat. melidribus melidribus pluribus pluribus
Acc. melidrés (-is) meliora plurés (-is) plira
Asi. melidribus melidribus pluribus pliribus
a. All comparatives except pliis are declined like melior.
b. The stem of comparatives properly ended in 6s-; but this became or
in the nominative masculine and feminine, and 6r- in all other cases except
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and 8 is
changed to i (cf. honér, ris; corpus, -Sris). Thus comparatives appear to
have two terminations.
c. The neuter singular pliis is used only asanoun. The genitive (rarely
the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative
is not found in classic use. The compound compliirés, several, has sometimes
neuter plural compliria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
121. In adjectives of Consonant stems —
a. The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -i, but sometimes -e.
1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e.
2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute,
§ 419), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives
have regularly -1: —
domin6 imperante, at the master’s command ; ab arse by a lover ; ab amanti
muliere, by a loving woman.
54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 121, 122
3. The following have regularly -i: —4méns, anceps, concors (and other
compounds of cor), cénsors (but as a substantive, -e), dégener, hebes, ingéns,
inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4, The following have regularly -e : —caeles, compos, [ {déses], dives, hospes,
particeps, pauper, princeps, sdspes, superstes. So also patrials (see § 71. 5) and
stems in 4t-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as
adjectives.
6. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in the
following : 1 —
1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, princeps, supplex, and
compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pés, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns: as, silentum concilium, a coun-
cil of the silent shades (Aen. vi. 482).
ce. The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -is, but comparatives com-
monly have -és.
d. Vetus (gen. -éris) and piibes (gen. -éris) regularly have -e in the abla-
tive singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the
genitive plural. For iber, see § 119.
e. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine
form in -a: as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iind Séspita.
Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives
122. The following special points require notice : —
a. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us),
inermis (-us), bicolor (-drus).
b. A few adjectives are indeclinable: as, damnas, frigi (really a dative
of service, see § 382. 1. n.?), néquam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the
pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an inde-
clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c. Several adjectives are defective : as, exspés (only nom.), exléx (exlégem)
(only nom. and ace. sing.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.);
and prim6ris, sémineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in thé
masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.
Such are aduléscéns, youthful; [tdéses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor ;
sdspes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are some-
times called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see
§ 321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see § 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives,
see § 321. d.
1 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.
§§ 123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com-
parison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu-
ter -ius),! the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a,-um), to the stem of
the Positive, which loses its final vowel : —
carus, dear (stem caro-) ; carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest.
levis, light (stem levi-) ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest.
félix, happy (stem félic-); félicior, happier; félicissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull (stem hebet-); hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.
Notr.— A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as,
grandius-culus, a little larger (see § 243).
a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : —
patiéns, patient; patientior, patientissimus. ;
apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.
125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative. The comparative is regular :—
acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus.
miser, wretched ; miserior, miserrimus.
a. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form
veter ; and matirus, besides its regular superlative (matirissimus), has a rare
form matirrimus.
For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used.
126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus
to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi-
lis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facillimus.
127. Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in
their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicéns
and voléns, which were anciently used as adjectives : —
maledicus, slanderous ; maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
1The comparative suffix (earlier -ids) is akin to the Greek -(wy, or the Sanskrit ~iyans.
That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to
contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in 5-10 T0-s and English sweetest) and also
the old -mo-s (seen in pri-mus, mini-mus, etc.). The endings -limus and -rimus are formed
by assimilation (§ 15.6) from-simus, The comparative and superlative are really new
stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection.
56 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 127-130
a. So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus : —
magnificus, grand; magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
~ 128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs
magis, more, and maximé, most.
So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i: —
iddneus, jit; magis idjneus, maximé iddneus.
Norr.— But pius has piissimus in the superlative, — a form condemned by Cicero,
but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.
Irregular Comparison
129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular
forms : —
bonus, good ; melior, better ; optimus, best.
malus, bad ; péior, worse ; pessimus, worst.
magnus, great; maior, greater ; maximus, greatest.
parvus, small ; minor, Jess ; minimus, least.
multus, much ; plis (N.) (§ 120), more; plirimus, most.
multi, many ; plirés, more ; plirimi, most.
néquam (indecl., § 122.6), néquior; néquissimus.
worthless ;
friigi (indecl., § 122. b), use- friigalior ; frigalissimus.
ful, worthy ;
dexter, on the right, handy; dexterior; dextimus.
Nore. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. § 127). Thus
friigalior and friigdlissimus are formed from the stem frigali-, but are used as the com-
parative and superlative of the indeclinable frigi.
Defective Comparison
130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a
Positive : —
dcior, swifter ; dcissimus, swiftest.
-potior, preferable ; } potissimus, most important.
a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : ?—_
1 The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.
2'The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the
comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives
of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -e7).
The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison; those in
-mus Jjike imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like extrémus are
superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an
accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and furtherest.
§§ 130, 131] DEFECTIVE COMPARISON 57
cis, citra (adv., on this side): citerior, hither ; citimus, hithermost.
dé (prep., down): déterior, worse; déterrimus, worst.
in, intra (prep., in, within): interior, inner; . intimus, inmost.
prae, pro (prep., before): prior, former ; primus, first.
prope (adv., near): propior, nearer; proximus, nezt.
ultra (adv., beyond): ulterior, farther; ultimus, farthest.
b. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as
nouns (generally in the plural) :—
exterus, outward ; exterior, outer; extrémus (extimus), outmost.
inferus, below (see § 111.6); inferior, lower; infimus (imus), lowest.
posterus, following ; posterior, latter; postrémus (postumus), last.
superus, above; superior, higher ; suprémus or summus, highest.
But the plurals, exteri, foreigners ; inferi, the gods below ; posteri, posterity ;
superi, the heavenly gods, are common.
Nortr.— The superlative postumus has the special sense of Jast-born, and was a well-
known surname.
131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superla-
tive: —
a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following : —
bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus,
caesius, invictus, pius,
falsus, invitus, sacer,
fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer.
b. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as,
agilis, probabilis), and in the following : —
actudsus exilis proclivis surdus
agrestis ingéns propinquus taciturnus
alacer iéitinus satur tempestivus
arcanus longinquus ségnis teres
caecus obliquus sérus vicinus
diiturnus opimus supinus
c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the com-
paratives itinior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor nati and
maior nati are sometimes used (nati being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, wit
or without nati.
Norr.— In these phrases nati is ablative of specification (see § 418).
d. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable
of comparison.
Norr.— But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy
black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning abso-
lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has 4trior),
58 NUMERALS [§§ 132, 133
NUMERALS
132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : —
I. NuMERAL ADJECTIVES:
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, iinus, one ;
duo, two, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers,' adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi-
nals, and answering the question which in order? as, primus, first; secun-
dus, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time?
as, singuli, one at a lime ; bini, two by two, etc.
Il. Numerat ADVERBS, answering the question how often? as, semel,
once ; bis, twice, etc. .
Cardinals. and Ordinals
133. These two series are as follows: —
CARDINAL ORDINAL ROMAN NUMERALS
1. anus, tina, tinum, one primus, -a, -um, first I
2. duo, duae, duo, two secundus (alter), second It
3. trés, tria, three tertius, third III
4. quattuor quartus IlII or Iv
5. quinque quintus Vv
6. sex sextus VI
7. septem septimus VII
8. octd octavus VII
9. novem nonus VIII Or Ix
10. decem decimus x
11. indecim indecimus xI
12. duodecim duodecimus xu
13. tredecim (decem (et) trés) _ tertius decimus (decimus (et) tertius) XIII
14, quattuordecim quartus decimus XIII Or XIV
15. quindecim quintus decimus XV
16. sédecim sextus decimus XVI
17. septendecim _ septimus decimus XVII
18. duodéviginti (octédecim) duodévicénsimus (octavus decimus) XVIII
-1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, ndnus) are formed by means of suf-
fixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus,
decimus (compare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; pri-
mus is a superlative ofa stem akin to pro; the forms in-tus (quartus, quintus, sextus) may
be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -ros, and with superlatives in
~to-T0-s, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to-simus). Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; alter is a comparative form (compare
-Tepos in Greek), and ndnus is contracted from jnovenos. The cardinal multiples of ten
are compounds of -gint- ‘ten’ (a fragment of a derivative from decem),
wer
elon we
§§ 133, 134] CARDINALS AND ORDINALS 59
CARDINAL ORDINAL ROMAN NUMERALS
19. indéviginti (novendecim) tindévicénsimus{nonus decimus) xvi1ti or x1x
20. viginti vicénsimus (vigénsimus) xx
21. viginti inus vicénsimus primus XXI
(or inus et viginti, etc.) (tinus et vicénsimus, etc.) -
30. triginta tricénsimus i Xxx
40. quadraginta quadragénsimus XXXX OF XL
50. quinquaginta quinquagénsimus J or.
60. sexaginta sexagénsimus LX
70. septuaginta septuagénsimus LXX
80. octdginta octégénsimus LXXx
90. ndnaginta nonagénsimus LXXXX Or XC
100. centum centénsimus C
101. centum (et) tinus, etc. centénsimus primus, etc. sy OL
200. ducenti, -ae, -a ducenténsimus cc
800. trecenti trecenténsimus cco
400. quadringenti quadringenténsimus ccce-
500. quingenti quingenténsimus D
600. sescenti sescenténsimus DC
700. septingenti septingenténsimus pec
800. octingenti octingenténsimus pcce
900. ndngenti nongenténsimus pecce
1000. mille millénsimus _ 00 (CID) or M
5000. quinque milia (millia) quinquiéns millénsimus 190
10,000. decem milia (millia) deciéns millénsimus cc199
100,000. centum milia (millia) centiéns millénsimus ccclo90
Norte 1.—- The forms in -€nsimus are often written without the n: as, vicésimus, etc.
Nore 2.— The forms octédecim, novendecim are rare, duodéviginti (two from twenty),
indéviginti (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be
expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and
nine respectively.
Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
134. Of the Cardinals only iinus, duo, trés, the hundreds above
one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
a. For the declension of inus, see $113. It often has the meaning of
same or only. The plural is used in this sense; but also, as a simple nu-
meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, tina castra,
one camp (cf. § 137.6). The plural occurs also in the phrase ini et alteri, one
party and the other (the ones and the others).
b. Duo,! two, and trés, three, are thus declined : —
1 The form in -0 is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is
found in cognate languages. Soinambd, both, which preserves -6 (cf. da and § 629. b).
60 NUMERALS [§§ 184, 135
M. F. N. M.,F. N.
Nom. duo duae duo trés tria
Gen. dud6rum duarum du6rum trium trium
Dat. dudbus duabus du6bus tribus tribus
Acc. du6s (duo) duas duo trés (tris) tria
Asi. dudbus -duabus dudbus tribus tribus
Norr. — Ambo, both, is declined like duo.
c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
d. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective : —
mille modis, in a thousand ways.
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men.
mille trahéns varids colérés (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thousand various
colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural
of sedile (§ 69): milia, milium, milibus, etc.
Norr.— The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and
accusative: as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men; in the other casés
rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia: as, cum octo milibus peditum,
mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
e. The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and
are regularly declined like bonus.
135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses : —
a. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted :
duo et viginti; otherwise et is omitted: viginti duo.
b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands
first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or
stands between the two highest denominations : — mille (et) septingenti
sexaginta quattuor, 1764.
Nors.— Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives : —
Unus et viginti milités, or viginti milités (et) inus, 27 soldiers.
duo milia quingenti milités, or duo milia militum et quingenti, 2500 soldiers.
milités mille ducenti triginta tinus, 1231 soldiers.
c. After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive :
duo milia hominum, two thousand men.}
cum tribus milibus militum, with three thousand soldiers.
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
d. For million, billion, trillion, etc., the Romans had no special words,
but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 188. a).
1 Or, in poetry, bis mille hominés, twice a thousand men.
Oy ee ee Ge A EE
§§ 135-137] DISTRIBUTIVES 61
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator
and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree
with pars expressed or understood : —two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partés) ;
three-eighths, trés octavae (sc. partés).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
Note 1.— When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-«
third, tertia pars; one-fourth, quarta pars.
Note 2.— When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numer-
ator only is given: two-thirds, duae partés; three-fourths, trés partés, etc.
Note 3.— Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound :
as, triéns, a third; bés, two-thirds. See § 637.
Distributives
136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of
bonus.
Norr.— These answer to the interrogative quoténi, how many of each? or how
many at a time?
1. singuli, one by one 18. octdni déni or duo- 100. centéni
2. bini, two by two dévicéni 200. ducéni
3. terni, trini 19. novéni déni or iin- 300. trecéni
4. quaterni dévicéni 400. quadringéni
5. quini 20. vicéni 500. quingéni
6. séni 21. vicéni singuli, etc. 600. sescéni
7. septeni 30. tricéni 700. septingéni
8. octoni 40. quadragéni 800. octingéni
9. noveéni 50. quinquagéni 900. ndngéni
10. déni 60. sexagéni 1000. milléni
11. indéni 70. septuagéni 2000. bina milia
12. duodéni 80. octogéni 10,000. déna milia
13. terni déni, ete. 90. nonagéni 100,000, centéna milia
137. Distributives are used as follows : —
a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula singulis, one
apiece (one each to each one); agri septéna itigera plébi divisa sunt, i.e. seven
jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), ete.
b. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in
form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense: as, bina
castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trini,
not terni, is used for three: as, trina (not terna) castra, three camps; terna
castra means camps in threes.
c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; ter septénis diébus, in thrice
seven days.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or
sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set).
62 NUMERALS [$§ 188, 139
Numeral Adverbs
138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiéns
(quotiés), how many times? how often?
1. semel, once 12. duodeciéns 40. quadragiéns
2. bis, twice 13. terdeciéns 50. quinquagiéns
8. ter, thrice 14, quaterdeciéns 60. sexagiéns
4. quater 15. quindeciéns 70. septuagiéns
5. quinquiéns (-és)! 16. sédeciéns 80. octdgiéns
6. sexiéns 17. septiésdeciéns 90. ndnagiéns
7. septiéns 18. duodéviciéns 100. centiéns
8. octiéns 19. indéviciéns 200. ducentiéns
9. noviéns 20. viciéns 300. trecentiéns
10. deciéns 21. semel viciéns,? ete. 1000. miliéns
11. indeciéns 80. triciéns 10,000. deciéns miliéns
a. Numeral Adverbs are used with mille to express the higher numbers:
ter et triciéns (centéna milia) séstertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty
times a hundred thousand sesterces).
viciés ac septiés miliés (centéna milia) séstertium, 7,700,000,000 sesterces
(twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
Notrr. — These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money,
and centéna milia is regularly omitted (see § 634).
Other Numerals
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives: —
simplex, single ; duplex, double, twofold ; triplex, triple, threefold ; quadruplex,
quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sésquiplex (14), multiplex
(manifold).
a. Proportionals are: duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., twice as
great, thrice as great, etc.
6. Temporals: bimus, trimus, of two or three years’ age ; biennis, triennis,
lasting two or three years ; biméstris, triméstris, of two or three months ; biduum,
a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.
ce. Partitives: binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: ini, unity; binid, the two (of dice); primanus,
of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; dénarius, a sum of 10 asses;
binus (distributive), double, etc.
1 Forms in -ns are often written without the n,
2 Also written viciéns et semel or viciéns semel, etc.
§§ 140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63
PRONOUNS
140. Pronouns are used as Nouns oras Adjectives. They are
divided into the following seven classes : —
. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, J.
- Reflexive Pronouns: as, sé, himself.
. Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.
. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hic, this; ille, that.
. Relative Pronouns: as, qui, who.
. Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who?
. Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.
“IQ Ore CO DD
141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
Norr.— These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of
declension differing from that of nouns.
Personal Pronouns
142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, J, nds,
we; of the second person, ti, thou or you, vis, ye or you. The
personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they—are
wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
143. Ego and ti are declined as follows: — :
First PERSON
Singular Plural
Nom. ego, I nos, we
GEN. mei, of me nostrum, nostri, of us
Dat. mihi (mi), to me nobis, to us
Acc. mé, me nods, us
ABL. mé, by me nobis, by us
SEconD PERSON
Nom. tii, thou or you vos, ye or you ’
GEN. tui, of thee or you vestrum, vestri; vostrum (-tri)
Dat. tibi vobis
Acc. té vos
ABL. té vobis
a. The plural nos is often used for the singular ego; the plural vis is
never so used for the singular ti.
64 PRONOUNS [S§ 148, 144
Norr.—Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative méd, téd (cf.
§ 43. n. 1).
b. The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively : —
finusquisque nostrum, each one of us.
vestrum omnium, of all of you.
Nore.— The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives
of the possessives: mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, ves-
trum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find tina
vestrarum, one of you (women).
c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively
(§ 347): —
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me).
mé tui pudet, J am ashamed of you. ~
d. Emphatic forms of ti are tite and titemet (titimet). The other
cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made
emphatic by adding -met: as, egomet, vosmet.
Notrs. — Early emphatic forms are mépte and tépte.
e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu-
lar; as, mémé, teté.
f. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative: as,
técum loquitur, he talks with you.
Reflexive Pronouns
144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer
to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see
§ 299): as, sé amat, he loves himself.
a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro-
nouns are used as Reflexives: as, mé vided, J see myself; té laudas, you
praise yourself; nobis persuadémus, we persuade ourselves.
b. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used
only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus
declined : —
Gen. sul, of himself, herself, itself, themselves
Dar. sibi, to himself, herself, itself, themselves
Acc. sé (sésé), himself, herself, itself, themselves
Asi. sé (sésé), [by] himself, herself, itself, themselves
Nore 1.— Emphatic and reduplicated forms of sé are made as in the personals (see
$143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, sécum, with himself, etc.
Nore 2.— An old form séd occurs in the accusative and ablative.
*
ee
§§ 145, 146] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 65
Possessive Pronouns
145. The Possessive pronouns are: —
First PERSON. meus, my noster, our
Srconp Person. tuus, thy, your vester, your
TuirpD PeErRson. _ suus, his, her, its suus, their
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are
so declined (see §§ 110-112). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in
the vocative singular masculine.
Norr.— Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative
must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father; but patrem éius
occidit, he killed his (somebody else’s) father.
a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular; sudpte.
b. A rare possessive ciiius (quéius), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the
genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (qui, quis). 1t
may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation,
but is usually the former.
e. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter sé or
alter . . . alterum : —
alter alterius ova frangit, they break each other’s eggs (one . ... of the other).
inter sé amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).
Demonstrative Pronouns
146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or
designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns
as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are: — hic, this; is,
ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same;! and
are thus declined: —
hic, this
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. hic haec hoc hi hae * haec
Gen. hiius htius hiius horum harum hodrum
Dart. huic huic huic his his his
Acc. hunc hanc hic hos has haec
Api. hoc hac hoc his his his
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly
distinguishable. .
66 PRONOUNS [§ 146
Norr 1.—Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce.
In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these
latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis: as, hiius-ce, his-ce. In early Latin-calone
is retained in some of these (hérunc). The vowel in hic, hdc, was originally short, and
perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ile and iste are sometimes found with —
the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc; also illoc. See a, p. 67.
Nore 2.— For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibus is sometimes
found; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.
is, that
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. is ea id el, ii (1) eae ea
GEN. éius éius éius eorum earum edrum
Dart. ei el el els, iis (is) eis, iis(is) eis, ils (is)
Acc. eum eam id eds eas ea
ABL. ed ea e0 eis, iis(is) eis, iis(is) eis, iis (is)
Notes 3.— Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fem.), and eabus or ibus (dat. plur.). For
dative ei are found also éi and & (monosyllabic); &, &s, etc., also occur in the plural.
ille, that
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. ille illa illud illi illae illa
Gen. _illius illius illius illdrum = illarum illdrum
Dar. ili = illi ili illis illis illis
Acc. illum illam illud illds illas illa
Asi. illo illa illd illis illis illis
Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
Nore 4. — Ille replaces an earlier ollus (olle), of which several forms occur.
Nore 5.—Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first
syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
Note 6.— The forms illi, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found;
also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
ipse, self
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. _ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa
Gen. ipsius ipsius_ ipsius ipsdrum ipsdrum ipsdrum
Dar. _ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis
Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsds ipsds ipsa
Asi. ipso ipsa ipsd ipsis ipsis ipsis
§ 146] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 67
Note 7.—Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain
origin: ef. § 145. a), meaning se/f. The former part was originally declined, as in
reapse (for ré eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus,
own selj', used for comic effect.
Nore 8.—The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse,
eampse, cOpse, eapse (ablative).
idem, the same
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. idem eddem idem idem (el-) eaedem eddem
Gen. Géiusdem Géiusdem éiusdem eOrundem eadrundem edrundem
Dat. eidem eidem eidem elsdem or isdem
Acc. eundem eandem idem edsdem easdem eddem
ABL. eddem eadem eddem eisdem or isdem
Nore 9. —Idem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix-dem. The mas-
culine idem is for tisdem; the neuter idem, however, is not for jiddem, but is a relic of
an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d: as, eundem for eumdem,
etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem.
a. Mlle and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c,
shortened from -ce, in the following forms : —
SINGULAR
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. illic illaec __ illuc (illoc) istic istaec istuc (istoc)
Acc. illunc illane __ illuc (illoc) istunc istanc istuc (istoc)
ABL. illic illac illdc istdc istac istdc
PLURAL
N., Acc. —— —— illaec —_ — istaec
NortE 1.—The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations:
as, hfiiusce, hunce, hdrunce, harunce, hésce, hisce (cf. § 146. nN. 1), illiusce, isce ; also with the
interrogative -ne, in hécine, héscine, istucine, illicine, etc.
Norse 2.—By composition with ecce or em, behold! are formed eccum (for ecce
eum), eccam, eccds, eccas; eccillum (for ecce illum); ellum (for em illum), ellam, ellés,
ellas; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial. :
-b. The combinations htiusmodi (haiuscemodi), éiusmodi, etc., are used as
indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, rés éiusmodi, such a
thing (a thing of that sort: cf. § 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff.
68 PRONOUNS [$§ 147-149
Relative Pronouns
147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who, which, is thus declined :—
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae
Gen. ciius ciius ciius quorum quarum qudrum
Dar. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus
Acc. quem quam quod quoés quas quae
ABL. quod qua quo quibus quibus quibus
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid,
what? is declined in the Singular as follows : —
M., F. N.
Nom. quis quid
GEN. chius chius
Dart. cui cui
Acc. quem quid
ABL. quo quo
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender,
but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
b. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what bind of ?
what? which? is declined throughout like the Relative : —
SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE
quis vocat, who calls ? qui hom6 vocat, what man calls ?
quid vidés, what do you see? quod templum vidés, what temple do you see?
Note. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is
very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person: as, qui ndmi-
nat mé? who calls my name ? quis diés fuit? what day was it? quis homd? what man?
but often qui hom6? what kind of man? nescid qui sis, J know not who you are.
c. Quisnam, pray, who? is an emphatic interrogative. It has both sub-
stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and qui, any, are
declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com-
monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine :—
§§ 149-151] COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69
SUBSTANTIVE : quis, any one; quid, anything.
ADJECTIVE: qui, qua (quae), quod, any.
a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
b. The indefinites quis and quiare rare except after si, nisi, né, and num,
and in compounds (see § 310. a, b).
Norte. — After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec-
tive (cf. § 148. b. N.).
Case-Forms of gui and quis
150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are
originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same
(compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the mas-
culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qua-. The
interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
a. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quéius, quoi.
6. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders;
but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combi-
nation quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
ce. A nominative plural qués (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative
and ablative quis (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the abla-
tive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143. /): as, quécum, quicum, quibuscum.
Note. — But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quo (uy. iv. 9).
Compounds of guts and qui
151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative
makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word: as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever ; ciiiuscumque, etc.
Nore. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as,
qualiscumque, of whatever sort ; quandécumque (also rarely quanddque), whenever ; ubi-
cumque, wherever.
b. In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in
common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and qudqud.
Nore 1.—Rareforms are quemquem and quibusquibus; an ablative quiqui is some-
times found in early Latin; the ablative feminine quaqua is both late and rare. Cuieui
occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are
cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
Nore 2.— Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative quéqué, which is
more commonly an adjective,
70 PRONOUNS [§ 151
e. The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; quivis, quilibet, any
you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part
is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive)
and quod- (adjective) : —
quidam quaedam quiddam (quoddam)
quivis quaevis quidvis (quodvis)
Quidam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular (quendam, m.;
quandam, Fr.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, M., N.; quarundam, F.).
d. The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all,
are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quae-
piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective);
the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine; the
neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only; there is no plural. Ullus,
-a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
e, The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjec.
tive), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae
except in the nominative plural feminine : —
SINGULAR
M. FE. N.
Nom. aliquis (aliqui) aliqua aliquid (aliquod)
GEN. alictiius alicdius alicdius
Dat. alicui alicui alicui
- Acc. aliquem aliquam aliquid (aliquod)
ABL. aliqué aliqua aliqué
PLURAL
Nom. aliqui aliquae aliqua
Gen. aliquérum aliquarum aliquérum
Dat. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus
Acc. aliquos aliquas aliqua
ABL. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus
Nors. — Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.
f. The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqui
(adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or
ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
Nore. —Ecquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the
nominative and accusative only.
g- The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal :
as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined
§§ 151, 152] CORRELATIVES 71
like the interrogative quis, qui: — substantive, quisque, quidque; adjective,
quique, quaeque, quodque.
In the compound tinusquisque, every single ene, both parts are declined
(genitive uniuschiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even
separated by other words : —
né in ind quidem quique (Lael. 92), not even in a single one.
h. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective
chius (-a, -um), older quéius, whose ; and a patrial cfids (chiat-), of what
country.
é. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from
the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding
respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 152). Indefinite com-
pounds are quantuscumque’and qualiscumque (see § 151. a).
Correlatives
152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs
have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and
indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives.
They are shown in the following table: —
Demon. REt. InTERROG. Inver. REL. InDEF.
is qui quis ? quisquis aliquis
that who who ? whoever some one
tantus quantus quantus ? quantuscumque aliquantus
so great how (as) great how great? however great some
talis qualis qualis ? qualiscumque oe
such as of what sort? of whatever kind
ibi ubi ubi? ubiubi alicubi
there where where ? wherever somewhere
e6 quo quo? quoqud aliqué
thither whither whither ? whithersoever (to) somewhere
ea qua qua? quaqua aliqua
that way which way which way ? whithersoever somewhere
inde unde unde ? undecumque alicunde
thence whence whence ? whencesoever from somewhere
tum cum quando ? quanddcumque aliquando
then when when ? whenever at some time
tot quot quot ? quotquot aliquot
so many as how many ? however many some, several
totiéns quotiéns quotiéns ? quotiénscumque aliquotiéns
so often as how often ? however often at several times
72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB —__é[$§ 153-156
VERBS
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood,
Tense, Person, and Number.
a. The Voices are two: Active and Passive.
6. The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In-
finitive.1 :
Norte. — The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in
distinction from the Infinitive.
ec. The Tenses are six, viz.: —
1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no
future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the
future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
e. The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural.
Noun and Adjective Forms
155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included
in the inflection of the Latin Verb: —
a. Four Participles,? viz.: —
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.’
6. The Gerund: this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension,
used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
c. The Supine: this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension
in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-i)* singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the
action of the verb (§ 451).
2 The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of
verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (§ 158. d). In
late use it became a Future Passive Participle. 4 Originally locative.
§§ 156, 157] VOICES AND MOODS 73
SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB
Voices
156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor-
respond to the active and passive in English; but —
a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning : —
ferré accingor, I gird myself with my sword.
Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself).
induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.
Nore. — This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt-
less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).
6. Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.
These are called Deponents (§ 190): as, hortor, J exhort; sequor, J follow.
c. Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect
tenses; these are called Semi-Deponents: as, auded, audére, ausus sum, dare.
Moods
157. The Moods are used as follows: —
a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga-
tions: as, —valésne? valed, are you well? I am weil.
6. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi-
tions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English
Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should ;?
sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and
often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic
examples of its use are the following : —
eamus, let us go; né abeat, let him not depart.
adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).
tii né quaesieris, do not thou inquire.
beatus sis, may you be blessed.
quid morer, why should I delay ?
nescid quid scribam, I know not what to write.
si moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (d@pdnere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and
we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb
with more definite meaning. Thus, J may write is often not scribam (subjunctive), but
licet mihi scribere; J can write is possum scribere; J would write is scribam, scriberem,
or scribere velim (vellem) ; J should write, (if, etc.), scriberem (si) .. ., or (implying duty)
oportet mé scribere,
74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 157, 158
c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command ; but the
Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450): —
liber est, he shall be free.
né ossa legitd, do not gather the bones.
d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject
or complement of another verb (§§ 452,456.N.). In special constructions it
takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in
English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.).
Nors. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ff.
Participles
158. The Participles are used as follows : —
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same
meaning and use as the English participle in -ing; as, vocins, call-
ing ; legentés, reading. (For its inflection, see egéns, § 118.)
b. The Future Participle (ending in -irus) is oftenest used to ex-
_ press what is likely or about to happen: as, réctiirus, about to rule ;
auditirus, about to hear.
Norr. — With the tenses of esse, to be, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation
(see § 195): as, urbs est casiira, the city is about to fall; mansirus eram, I was going
to stay.
c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses : —
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle: .
as, téctus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck; and often
has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas:
sive: as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called.
Norr. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For
substitutes see §§ 492, 493.
d. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses : —
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or
propriety (ought or must): as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
Notrr. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb fo be (esse) it forms the Second
Periphrastic Conjugation: déligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning
as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (For
examples, see § 503 ff.)
+
§§ 159-162] TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB 75
Gerund and Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows: —
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English
verbal noun in -~ing (§ 502): as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.
Nors. — The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. « A corresponding nomi-
native is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is use-
ful; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.
b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. 6),
found only in the accusative ending in -tum, -sum, and the dative or abla-
tive ending in ti, -si.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -i after adjec-
tives (§§ 509, 510): —
vénit spectatum, he came to see; mirabile dicti, wonderful to tell.
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same
meaning as the corresponding tenses in English: —
a. Of continued action,
1. Present: scribd, I write, I am writing, I do write.
2. ImperFect: scribébam, I-wrote, I was writing, I did write.
3. Furure: scribam, I shall write.
b. Of completed action,
4, Perrect: scripsi, I have written, I wrote.
5. PLupeRFEcT: scripseram, I had written.
6. Fururre Perrect: scripserd, I shall have written.
_ 161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per-
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed
in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as,
scripsi, J have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he wrote.
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend-
ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses; but
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 449.
.
76 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 168
PERSONAL ENDINGS
163. Verbs have regular terminations! for each of the three
Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. ‘These are:
ACTIVE. PASSIVE
SINGULAR
1. -m(-6): am-6, J love. -x(-or): amo-r, J am loved.
Biv-A2 ama-s, thou lovest. -ris (-re): améa-ris, thou art loved.
3. -t: ama-t, he loves. -tur: ama-tur, he is loved.
PLURAL
1. -mus: ama-mus, we love. -mur: ama-mur, we are loved.
2. -tis: amia-tis, you love. -mini: ama-mini, you are loved.
3, -mt: ama-nt, they love. -ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved.
a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations * : —
Sine. 1. -i: amiay-i, I loved.
2. -is-ti: amavy-is-ti, thou lovedst.
3. -i+t: amiav-i-t, he loved.
Privr. 1. -i-mus: amavy-i-mus, we loved.
2. -is-tis: amav-is-tis, you loved.
5. -érunt (-€re): § amavy-érunt (-ére), they loved.
6. The Imperative has the following terminations : —
Present ACTIVE
Singular Plural
2. —: ama, love thou. -te: ama-te, love ye.
Furure AcTIvE
2. -t6: ama-to, thou shalt love. -tite: améa-tote, ye shall love.
3. -t0: améa-to, he shall love. -nto: ama-nto, they shall love.
1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus
added to that of the verb-stem (cf. § 36). But the ending -mini in the second person
plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek
-Hevos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The per-
sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominatiye -ns).
2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages,
and of uncertain origin.
8 Of these terminations -i1 is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an
Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is-tis, -ti and -tis are
personal endings; for -is-, see § 169. c. nN. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal
endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -érunt and -ére are also of doubtful origin,
but the former contains the personal ending -nt.
§§ 163, 164] } THE THREE STEMS TT
Singular PRESENT PASSIVE Plural
2. -re: amia-re, be thou loved. -mini: améa-mini, be ye loved.
Furure Passive
2. -tor: améa-tor, thou shalt be loved. a —
8. -tor: améa-tor, he shall be loved. -ntor: ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
FoRMS OF THE VERB
The Three Stems
164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems,
called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (8) the Supine stem.
1. On the Present stem are formed —
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive. é
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
8. On the Supine stem are formed ! —
a. The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the
verb sum, be, to make —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
b. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make
the Future Active Infinitive.
c. The Supine in -um and-i. The Supine in -um combines with iri to
make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a).
Nore. — The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive
(as, amatus fore). For fore (futiirum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a.
1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly
noun-forms, each with its own suflix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t)
the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5). Hence these
forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tiira, etc., see § 238. 6. n.1), were
felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with
the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingd, we have pictum, pictus, pictirus, pictor, pictira;
from rided, risum (for {rid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risiirus, risid, risor, risibilis.
78 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$$ 165, 166
VERB-ENDINGS
165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
1. The Srem (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or
development of it.
2. The EnpING, consisting of —
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 169).
2. the Personal Ending (see § 168).
Thus in the verb voca-ba-s, you were calling, the root is voc, modified into the
verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the ending -bas becomes the imperfect
tense vocabas; and this ending consists of the tense-sign ba- and the personal
ending (-s) of the second person singular.
166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for
mood and tense combined with personal endings, are —
ACTIVE PASSIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT PRESENT
Sine. 1. -3 ar -m -or -r
2. -s 8e2|-8 -tis (-re) 83 -ris (-re)
3. -t s se | -t -tur &3 -tur
Prior. 1. -mus $3 | -mus -mur ote -mur
2. -tis S22 | -tis -mini & 3 | -mini
3. -nt 75 | -nt -ntur -ntur
IMPERFECT IMPERFECT
Sine. 1. -ba-m -re-m -ba-r -re-r
2. -ba-s -ré-s -ba-ris (-re) -ré-ris (-re)
3. -ba-t -re-t - ba-tur -ré-tur
Piour. 1. -ba-mus -ré-mus -ba-mur -ré-mur
2. -ba-tis -ré-tis -ba-mini -ré-mini
3. -ba-nt -re-nt ~ba-ntur -re-ntur
INDICATIVE INDICATIVE
FuTURE FuturE
I, 1 Ill, IV I, TI, rv!
Sine. 1. -b-6 2% ( -a-m -bo-r P -a-t
2. bi-s ‘4 a e -é-s ~be-ris (-re) : g -€-ris (-re)
3. -bi-t S222 | et -bi-tur & = | --tur
Puur. 1. -bimus 93% 4 | -2-mus -bi-mur 3 P -é-mur
2.-bitis 222 | -Ctis -bi-mini 84 | mini
8.-bunt 58838 | -ent -bu-ntur -e-ntur
1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 171).
§ 166] VERB-ENDINGS 79
Active Passive
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT PERFECT
Sine. 1. -i -eri-m t ¢ sum . gim
2. -is-ti -eri-s z ge es sis
3. -i-t -eri-t est sit
Puor. 1. -i-mus -eri-mus ti (-ta sumus simus
2. -is-tis -eri-tis wt tae, estis sitis
3. -éru-nt (-ére) -eri-nt - sunt sint
PLUPERFECT PLUPERFECT
Sine. 1. -era-m -isse-m eram essem
2. -era-s -issé-s -tus(-ta, eras essés
@ -tum
3. -era-t -isse-t erat esset
Puor. 1. -era-mus -issé-mus 2 eramus essémus
2. -era-tis -issé-tis ti (-tae, eratis essétis
3 5 ; -ta)
. ~era-nt -isse-nt erant essent
Future PERFECT Future PEeRrFectT
Sine. 1. -er-6 ero
2. -eri-s = oe eris
-tum
8. -eri-t erit
Puior. 1. -eri-mus erimus
2. -eri-tis ig eritis
3. -eri-nt- erunt
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT PRESENT
Sine. 2. —— Piur. 2. -te Sine. 2. -re Prior. 2. -mini
Future FuTURE
945 2. -tote 2. -tor
3. -t6 8. -ntd 3. -ter 3. -ntor
For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of
the verb is here added.
INFINITIVE
Pres. -re (Pres, stem) I, U, IV. -fi; 11. -1
Perr. -isse (Perf. stem) -tus (-ta, -tum) esse
Fur. _-tiirus (-a, -um) esse -tum iri
PARTICIPLES gl
Pres. -unas, -ntis ss Perr. -tus, -ta, -tum
Fer. _ -tirus, -a, -um Ger. -ndus, -nda, -ndum
GERUND SUPINE
-ndi. -nd6, -ndum, -ndé -tum, -ti
80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 167, 168
167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings
-m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, amet (for older amé+), habe-t (for habé-+),
mone-nt, mone-ntur.
168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres-
ent Stem as follows: —!
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to
the present stem. Thus, — present stem ara-: ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
b. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, ete. (originally a com-
plete verb) is added to the present stem: as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus.
Norsr.— The form tbam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU
(ef. fui, futiirus, giw, English be, been), and meant Iwas. This was added to a com-
plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in J was a-seeing; hence vidé-bam.
The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the
others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167).
c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar
suffix, -b6, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem: as, ara-b6, ara-bis, moné-bd.
Norsr. — The form }b6 was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future
meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in 0. N.
d. In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the
terminations -am, -és, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-és, audi-am, audi-és) are really sub-
junctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally
long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.
e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a
form of the present stem ending in 6- or 4-, which was shortened in certain
forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, amé-s, teg4-mus, tega-nt.
Nors 1.— The vowel é (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-é-s) is an inherited
subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened.
The 4 of the other conjugations (mone-a-s, reg-d-s, audi-a-s) is of uncertain origin.
Norr 2.—In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -is, etc. occurs:
as, sim, sis, simus, velim, velis, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the Indo-
European optative mood-sign yé- (cf. siem, siés, siet, §170. b. n.). The vowel has
been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
f. In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -rés, etc. is added to the
present stem: as, ama-rem, ama-rés, moné-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem.
Norr.— The stem element -ré- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of
Italic. Ther is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se-m, es-sé-s) changed to r between
two vowels (§ 15. 4). The é is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
1 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad-
’ ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent
speech; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or ef
the Latin language itself.
§§ 169, 170] VERB-ENDINGS 81
169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are
made from the Perfect Stem as follows : —
a. In the Perfect Indicative the endings -i, -isti, etc. are added directly
to the perfect stem: as, am@y-isti, téx-istis.
b. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the
perfect stem: as, amav-eram, monu-eras, téx-erat.
Nore. — This seems to represent an older f-is-Am etc. formed on the analogy of
the Future Perfect in -erd (older f-is-O: see ¢ below) and influenced by eram (imperfect
of sum) in comparison with eréd (future of sum).
c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -er6, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect
stem: as, amay-erd, monu-eris, téx-erit.
Notes. — This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob-
ably in f-is-6. The-is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of
the perfect indicative (vid-is-ti), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is-se), and in the plu-
perfect subjunctive (vid-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem
vowel.
d. In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the
perfect stem: as, amay-erim, monu-eris, téx-erit.
Notrr.— This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older
-is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). Thei after r is the optative mood-sign i
shortened (see § 168. e. N.*). Forms in -is, -it, -imus, -itis, are sometimes found. The
shortening in -is, -imus, -itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -issés, etc. is added to
the perfect stem: as, amay-issem, monu-issés, téx-isset.
Note. — Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica-
tive in f-is-Am (later -er-am, see b), and influenced by essem (earlier fessém) in its
relation to eram (earlier tesam).1
The Verb Sum
170. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor-
tance for the inflection of other verbs.
1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or
‘verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language
developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of com-
position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imita-
tion of such processes. Thus vidébamus is made by adding to vidé-, originally a signifi-
cant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form ;bamus, not by inserting
~ba- between vidé- and -mus (§ 168. b).
82 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 170
Principat Parts: Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse,
Perfect Indicative fui, Future Participle futirus.
Supine Stem fut-
PRESENT STEM es- PERFECT STEM fu-
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
Sinc. 1. sum, J am sim }
2. &s, thou art (you are) sis
3. est, he (she, it) is sit
Pivur. 1. sumus, we are simus
2. estis, you are Sitis
3. sunt, they are sint
IMPERFECT
Since. 1. eram, I was essem
2. eras, you were essés
3. erat, he (she, it) was esset
Puivur. 1. eramus, we were essémus
2. eratis, you were essétis
3. erant, they were essent
Future
Sine. 1. eré, J shall be
2. eris, you will be
3. erit, he will be
Piur. 1. erimus, we shall be
2. eritis, you will be
3. erunt, they will be
PERFECT
Since. 1. fui, J was (have been) fuerim
2. fuisti, you were fueris
3. fuit, he was fuerit
Prur. 1. fuimus, we were fuerimus
2. fuistis, you were fueritis —
3. fuérunt, fuére, they were fuerint
PLUPERFECT
Sine. 1. fueram, J had been fuissem
2. fueras, you had been fuissés
3. fuerat, he had been fuisset
1 All translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given; see
§ 157. b. ;
§ 170] THE VERB SUM 83
Prur. 1. fueramus, we had been fuissémus fF
2. fueratis, you had been fuissétis ‘
3. fuerant, they had been fuissent git
Future PEerFect |
Since. 1. fueré, J shall have been Prur. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been
2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you will have been
3. fuerit, he will have been 3. fuerint, they will have been
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT Sine. 2. &s, be thou Priur. 2. este, be ye
Future 2. est6, thou shalt be 2. est6te, ye shall be
3. est6, he shall be 3. sunt, they shall be
INFINITIVE
Present esse, to be
Perrecr fuisse, to have been
Furure futiirus esse or fore, to be about to be
PARTICIPLE
FurTurE futiirus, -a, -um, about to be
a. For essem, essés, etc., forem, forés, foret, forent, are often used; so fore
for futiirus esse.
b. The Present Participle, which would regularly be fsins,! appears in
the adjective in-sins, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-séns, prae-séns.
The simple form éns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin asa
participle or abstract noun, in the forms éns, being ; entia, things which are.
Norr.—Old forms are:—Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa-
tive present, see § 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, siés, siet, sient; fuam, fuds, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fivi-
mus; Pluperfect, fiivisset.
The root of the verb sum is Es, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see § 15. 4),
and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several
languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, —
the Sanskrit sya@m corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) : —
SANSKRIT GREEK LATIN LITHUANIAN
as-mi sydm (optative) gup.? s-um —_ sim (siem) es-mi
as-i syas éool? es Sis (siés) es-i
as-ti syat éore es-t sit (siet) es-ti
smas syama éouév s-umus simus es-me
stha sydata éaré es-tis sitis es-te
s-anti syus évtl? s-unt sint (sient) es-ti
The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek @gv, and with
the English be.
1 Compare Sankrit sant, Greek wy. 2 Old form.
84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 171-178
The Four Conjugations
171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distin-
guished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present
Infinitive Active : —
CoNnJUGATION INFINITIVE ENDING STEM
First -dre (amare) a
Second -6re (monére) é
Third -ére (regére) é
Fourth -ire (audire) i
The Principal Parts
172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems
which determine its conjugation throughout, are —
1. The Present Indicative (as, am6)
2. The Present Infinitive (as, ama-re)
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amay-i), showing the Perfect Stem.
4, The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat-um), or, if that form
is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat-irus), showing the Supine
Stem.
} showing the Present Stem.
173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in
the following : —
First Conjugation : —.
Active, am6, amare, amAvi, amatum, love.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus.
Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-, Supine Stem amat-.
Second Conjugation : —
Active, déled, délére, délévi, délétum, blot out.
Passive, déleor, déléri, délétus.
Present Stem délé-, Perfect Stem délév-, Supine Stem délét-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic é- rarely appears
in the perfect and perfect participle. ‘The common type is, therefore : —
Active, moned, monére, monui, monitum, warn.
Passive, moneor, monéri, monitus. :
Present Stem moné-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.
§§ 173, 174] PRESENT STEM 85
Third Conjugation : —
Active, tego, tegére, téxi, téctum, cover.
Passive, tegor, tegi, téctus.
Present Stem teg&-, Perfect Stem téx-, Supine Stem téct-.
Fourth Conjugation : —
Active, audid, audire, audivi, auditum, hear.
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus.
Present Stem audi-, Perfect Stem audiv-, Supine Stem audit-.
a. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or
more different conjugations (cf. § 189): —
1, 2, dom6, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.
2, 3, maned, manére, m&nsi, mansum, remdin.
8, 4, petd, petére, petivi, petitum, seek.
4, 3, vincid, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem
conforms.
Present Stem
174, The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main
classes of verbs: —
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (°/o, in Latin ify) appeared
between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for fleg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for
fleg-o-nti) .1
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root:
as, es-t, es-tis (root Es)?, di-mus (d6, root DA), fer-t (ferd, root FER).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular,
except such as have been forced into one of the four ‘‘regular’’ conjugations. Even
the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two
classes : —
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the per-
sonal endings. — These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed
in various ways (§ 176), but always ends in a short vowel °/, (Latin i4). Examples are
tego (stem teg*/,-), sternimus (stem stern®/,-) for fster-no-mos, plectunt (stem plect*/,-)
for jplec-to-nti. So ndscd (stem gndsc®/,-) for gné-sc-6. Verbs like ndscd became the
type for a large number of verbs in -scd, called inceptives (§ 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix y°/,-, which already
contained the thematic vowel °*/,.— Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except
u) came in contact with the suffix y*/- suffered contraction so as to present a long
vowel 4-, 6-,i-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic °/, disappeared.
These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively.
In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans
themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and
1 Cf. Aéy-e-re, Aéy-o-wev; Doric Aéy-0-vTe.
2 Cf. éo-rl, éo-ré (see p. 83, note).
86 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 174-176
adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in
English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make
verbs: as, macadamize, modernize. ; :
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact
with the suffix y®/o- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into
the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth,
and some have forms of both. Examples are: — (con)spicié (-spicére) for }speky0 ; venio
(venire) for t(g)vem-y6 ; cupid, cupére, but cupivi; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however,
plué (pluere) for tplu-yd; and hence, by analogy, acud (acuere) for tacu-yo.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have
been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which
is practically represented in §§ 175, 176.
175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the
Present Infinitive : —
ama-re, stem ama-; moné-re, stem moné-; tegé-re, stem teg&-; audi-re, stem
audi-.
176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regu-
lar verbs in one of the following ways : —
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long
vowel (a-, 6-, i-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, voca-re
(voc), moné-re (MEN, cf. memini), sopi-re (sop).
Notrs.— Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun-
stems on the pattern of older formations (see § 174).
6. In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel %? to the root.
In Latin this % usually appears as i/,, but e is preserved in some forms.
Thus, tegi-s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG); but tegé-ris (tegé-re), alé-ris.
1. The stem-vowel & (i/,) may be preceded by n, t, or sc:? as, tem-ni-tis,
tem-nu-nt, tem-né-ris (TEM) ; plec-ti-s (PLEC) ; cré-sci-tis (CRE).
2. Verbs in -i6 of the Third Conjugation (as, capid, capére) show in some forms
an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i-unt (cap), fug-i-unt (rue).
c. The root may be changed —
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication) : as, gi-gn-e-re (cEN).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n): as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e-re (TAG).
1 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by
adding the suffix -y®/,- toa noun-stem. The4 of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending
of the noun (as, planta-re, from planta-, stem of planta). The é of the Second and thei
of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem
with the ending -y*/,-. Thus albére is from alb°/,-, stem of albus; finire is from fini-,
stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel.
2 This is the so-called ‘‘ thematic vowel.”’
F i In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -n®/,-, -t®/-,
sc®/-.
§§ 176, 177] PERFECT STEM 87
d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u-:
as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-d-re (aestu-s); cf. acud, acuere.?
Nore 1.— A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re,
fer-t; es-se; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.
Norts 2.—In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem-
vowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (mir).
e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem
is generally identical with the root: as, da-mus (DA), flé-mus (stem flé-, root
form unknown).? But others, as rui-mus (rv), are formed with an addi-
tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
Notre.— Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (sTA, cf. stare).
Perfect Stem
177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows : —
a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem: as, voca-y-i, audi-v-i; or
to the root: as, son-u-i (sona-re, root SON), mon-u-I (moné-re, MON treated
as a root).®
Norr.—In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as,
stra-v-i (sternd, sTAR), spré-v-I (spernd, SPAR).
b. The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s-i (CARP), téx-i (for tég-s-,
TEG).*
Notr.— The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect:
as, finx-i (FIG, present stem fingé-), sanx-i (sAc, present stem sanci-),
c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally
with &, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-I (cadé, CAD), to-tond-i
(tonded, TOND).
Nors.— In fid-i (for f fe-fid-i, find-5), scid-i (for f sci-scid-i, scind6), the reduplication
has been lost, leaving merely the root.
d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change: as, lég-i
(lég-5), Em-i (m-5), vid-i (vid-e-5), fug-i (fiig-i-d), Eg-i (Ag-0).
e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in
the present tense: as, vert-i (vert-0), soly-i (soly-0).
f. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or intapinary stem: as,
peti-v-i (as if from {peti+, tpeti-re, Per).
1 These are either old formations in -y*/,- in which the y has disappeared after the
u (as, statuéd for jstatu-y6) or later imitations of such forms.
2 In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with
the root; in others the ending -y*/,- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction.
8 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.
4 The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for {dics-i) corresponds te the
Greek aorist @-de¢-a (for fé-derxo-a).
88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 178, 179
Supine Stem
178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the
Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s)—
a. To the present stem: as, ama-t-um, délé-t-um, audi-t-um.
b. To the root, with or without i: as, cap-t-um (capid, CAP), moni-t-um
(moned, MON used as root), cds-um (for tcad-t-um, CAD), léc-t-um (LEG).
NotE 1.—By phonetic ep at and tt become s (défénsum, versum for {dé-fend-
t-um, tvert-t-um); bt becomes pt (scrip-t-um for {scrib-t-um); gt becomes ct (réc-t-um
for freg-t-um).1
Notsr 2.— The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine:
as, tinc-t-um (tingd, ria), tén-s-um for jtend-t-um (ten-d-6, TEN).
Note 3.— The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, peti-t-um
(as if from fpeti-d, tpeti-re, PET).
Notr 4.—A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d
and t: as, fal-s-um (falld), pul-s-um (pelld).
Forms of Conjugation
179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by
adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can
be made are as follows: —
a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add 4- to the
root to form the present stem: as, ama-re; with a few whose root
ends in a (ffor, fa-ri; fl6, fla-re; n6, na-re; std, sta-re).
1. The stem-vowel 4- is lost before -6: as, amd = tam4-(y)6; and in the
present subjunctive it is changed to €: as, amé-s, amé-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present
stem: as, am4-v-I, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add é- to the
root to form the present stem: as, moné-re; with a few whose root
ends in 6; as, fle-6, flé-re; ne-0, né-re; re-or, ré-ri (cf. § 176. e).
ae 61 the present subjunctive 4 is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-a-s,
mone-a-mus (cf. § 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine
stem by adding t, to the present stem: as, délé-v-i, délé-t-um. But most
form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by
adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in 1: as, mon-t-i,
moni-t-um. For lists, see § 210.
1 For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10.
2 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
§ 179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see
§ 197) which add & to the root to form the present stem: as, tegé-
re, capé-re; with a few whose root ends in e: as, se-ré-re for tse-se-re
(reduplicated from sx, cf. satum).
1. The stem-vowel é is regularly lost before -6, and becomes u? before
-nt and i before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as,
teg-6, tegi-t, tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes €: as, tegé-
bam, tegé-bas, etc.; in the future, é: as, tegé-s (except in the first person
singular, tega-m, tega-r); in the present subjunctive, 4: as, tega-s.
Verbs in -id lose the i before a consonant and also before i, i, and é
(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).
Thus, —capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ébat, capi-és, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it
(not tcapi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga-
tion. See lists, §211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem,
but from the root.
d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the
root to form the present stem: as, audi-re.* In these the perfect and
supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audi-v-i, audi-
t-um.’ Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in
the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive :
as, audi-unt, audi-ébat, audi-étis, audi-at, the i being regularly short
before a vowel.
e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the
same as the present stem: as, ama, moné, tegé, audi. But verbs in -i6
of the third conjugation omit i: as, capé (not fcapie).
f. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu-
larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the
perfect stem: as, amav-i, amav-eram, amdv-erd, amav-erim, amav-issem,
amav-isse.
g- The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed
by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con-
tinued action of the verb esse: as, perfect amatus sum; pluperfect
amatus eram, etc.
1 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus,
2 A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-s), and a few roots yertape
end ini; but these are not distinguishable in form,
8 For exceptions, see § 212. b.
90 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 180
Synopsis of the Verb
180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar-
ranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amé, a regular verb
of the first conjugation, is taken as a type.
PRINCIPAL Parts: Active, am6, amare, amayi, amatum.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum. ‘
PRESENT STEM ama- PERFECT STEM amav- SUPINE STEM amat~
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Present stem, ama-
INDICATIVE
PREs. amo amo-r
IMPERF. ama-bam ama-bar
For. ama-b6 ama-bor
SUBJUNCTIVE
PREs. ame-m ame-r
IMPERF. ama-rem ama-rer
IMPERATIVE
PREs. ama ama-re
Fot. . ama-t6 ama-tor
INFINITIVE
PREs. ama-re ama-ri
PARTICIPLE
PREs. ama-ns : GERUNDIVE ama-ndus
GERUND ama-ndi
Perfect stem, amav- Supine stem, amat-
4 INDICATIVE
PERF. amav-i amat-us sum
PLUPERF. amav-eram amat-us eram
Fort. Perr. amav-ero amat-us er6
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERF. amav-erim amat-us sim
PLUPERF. amav-issem amat-us essem
INFINITIVE
Perr. amav-isse
Supine stem, amat-
INFINITIVE
PERF. amat-us esse
For. amat-iirus esse amat-um iri
PARTICIPLE
For. amat-iirus Perr. amat-us
SUPINE
amat-um amat-i
§§ 181-183] PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION 91
Peculiarities of Conjugation
181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two
vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
a. Perfects in -Avi, -€vi, Ovi, often contract the two vowels into 4, 6, 4,
respectively: as, amasse for amavisse; amarim for amaverim; amassem for
amavissem ; cOnsuérat for cOnsuéverat; fléstis for flévistis; ndsse for ndvisse.
So in perfects in -vi, where the visa part of the present stem: as, commorat
for commiverat.
Notr.— The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amavi) is never contracted,
the third very rarely.
b. Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels ex-
cept before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect :—
audieram for audiveram ; audisse for audivisse ; audisti for audivisti; abiit for
abivit ; abiérunt for abivérunt.
Nots 1.— The forms siris, sirit, siritis, sirint, for siveris etc. (from siverd or siverim),
are archaic.
NotrE 2.— In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner,
when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dixti for dixisti (k=cs); traxe
for traxisse; vasti for évasisti; vixet for vixisset; érépsémus for érépsissémus; décésse
for décessisse. ‘These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.
182. Four verbs, — dicé, diicd, facid, ferdé, —with their compounds,
drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dic, diic, fac,
fér; but compounds in -ficid retain it, as, confice.
Nortr.— The imperative forms dice, diice, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
a. For the imperative of scid, the future form scit6 is always used in the
singular, and scitdte usually in the plural.
183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry:
1. In the fourth conjugation, -ibam, -ib6, for -iébam, -iam (future). These
forms are regular in e6, go (§ 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in
religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and
vol6 and their compounds (§§ 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -s6: as,
faxim, fax6, iuss6, recépsd (= fécerim etc.) ; ausim (= ausus sim).
4, In the passive infinitive, -ier: as, vocdrier for vocdri; agier for agi.
5. A form in -dss6, -dssere is found used as a future perfect: as, am4ssis,
from amé; levassé, from levé ; impetrassere, from impetré; itidicdssit, from
iidicé (cf. § 263. 2. b. N.).
92 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 184
FIRST CONJUGATION (@-STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE
184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add 4- to
the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in a-. The verb ams, love, is conjugated as follows: —
Principat Parts: Present Indicative am6, Present Infinitive amare,
Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatum.
PRESENT STEM ama- PERFECT STEM amay- SUPINE STEM amat-
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
am6,} I love, am loving, do love amem ?
amas, thou lovest (you love) amés
amat, he (she, it) loves amet
amamus, we love amémus
amatis, you love , amétis
amant, they love ament
IMPERFECT
amabam, I loved, was loving, did love amarem
amabas, you loved amarés
amabat, he loved amaret
amabamus, we loved amarémus
amabatis, you loved amarétis
amabant, they loved amarent
FUTURE
amab6, J shall love
amabis, you will love
amabit, he will love
amabimus, we shall love
amabitis, you will love
amabunt, they will love
1 The stem-vowel 4- is lost before -6, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes €-.
2 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction.
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§ 184] FIRST
INDICATIVE
amiavi, J loved, have loved
amavisti, you loved
amiavit, he loved
amavimus, we loved
amavistis, you loved
amavérunt (-6re), they loved
CONJUGATION 93
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
amaverim
amaveris
amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amaverint
PLUPERFECT
amaveram, J had loved
amaveras, you had loved
amiaverat, he had loved
amaveramus, we had loved
amaveratis, you had loved
amaverant, they had loved
amavissem
amavissés
amavisset
amavissémus
amavissétis
amavissent
Future PERFECT
Singular
amiver6, I shall have loved
amaveris, you will have loved
amaverit, he will have loved
Plural
amaverimus, we shall have loved
amaveritis, you will have loved
amaverint, they will have loved
IMPERATIVE
Present ama, love thou
Future amdat6, thou shalt love
amat6, he shall love
amate, love ye
amatite, ye shall love
amant6, they shall love
INFINITIVE
Present amare, to love
PERFECT amavVisse or amasse, to have loved
Furure amiatirus esse, to be about to love
PARTICIPLES
Present amans, -antis, loving
Fourure amatiirus, -a, -um, about to love
GERUND
AccusaTIvVE amandum, loving
ABLATIVE amandé, by loving
Genitive amandi, of loving
Dative amandé, for loving
SUPINE
amatum, to love amatii, to love
94 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 184
FIRST CONJUGATION (@-STEMS)— PASSIVE VOICE
Principat Parts: Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amari,
Perfect Indicative amatus sum.
PRESENT STEM ama- SUPINE STEM amat-
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
amor,? I am loved, being loved amer ®
amaris (-re), you are loved améris (-re)
amatur, he is loved amétur
amamur, we are loved amémur
amamini, you are loved amémini
amantur, they are loved amentur
IMPERFECT
amabar, I was loved, being loved amarer
amabaris (-re), you were loved amaréris (-re)
amabatur, he was loved amarétur
amabamur, we were loved amarémur
amabamini, you were loved amarémini
amabantur, they were loved amarentur
FUTURE
amabor, I shall be loved
amaberis (-re), you will be loved
amabitur, he will be loved
amabimur, we shall be loved
amabimini, you will be loved
amabuntur, they will be loved
1 Fui, fuisti, ete., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc.; so also fueram instead
of eram and fuerd instead of erd. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive
fuerim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of sim, sis, etc., and fuissem instead of
essem.
2 The stem-vowel 4- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes €-.
8 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction.
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§ 184] FIRST
INDICATIVE
amiatus sum,! I was loved
amatus es, you were loved
amatus est, he was loved
amati sumus, we were loved
CONJUGATION 95
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
amatus sim}
amatus sis
amatus sit
amati simus
amati estis, you were loved amati sitis
amati sunt, they were loved ~ amati sint
PLUPERFECT
amatus eram,! J had been loved
amatus eras, you had been loved
amatus erat, he had been loved
amati eramus, we had been loved
amati eratis, you had been loved
amati erant, they had been loved
amatus essem !
amatus essés
amatus esset
amati essémus
amati essétis
amati essent
Future PERFECT
Singular
amatus er6,! J shall have been loved
amatus eris, you will have, etc.
amatus erit, he will have, etc.
Plural
amati erimus, we shall have, etc.
amati eritis, you will have, etc.
amati erunt, they will have, etc.
IMPERATIVE
Present amare, be thou loved
Future
amator, thou shalt be loved
amator, he shall be loved
amamini, be ye loved
amantor, they shall be loved
INFINITIVE
PrEsENtT amari, to be loved
Perrect amatus esse, to have been loved
Forure amatum iri, to be about to be loved
PARTICIPLES
amatus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved)
amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely)
PERFECT
Future (GERUNDIVE)
1 See page 94, footnote 1.
96 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 185
SECOND CONJUGATION (é-STEMS)
185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add é@
to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in &.
PRINCIPAL Parts: Active, moned, monére, monui, monitum ;
Passive, moneor, monéri, monitus sum.
PRESENT STEM moné-
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
moned, J warn moneam!
monés, you warn moneas
monet, he warns . moneat
PERFECT STEM monu-
SUPINE STEM monit-
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
moneor monear 1
monéris (-re) monearis (-re)
monétur moneatur
monémur moneamur
monémini moneamini
monentur moneantur
IMPERFECT
monébar monérer
monébaris (-re) monéréris (-re) _
monémus moneamus
monétis moneatis
monent moneant
IMPERFECT
monébam monérem
monébas monérés
monébat monéret
monébamus monérémus
monébatis monérétis
monébant monérent
FutTurRE
monéb6
monébis
monébit
monébimus
monébitis
monébunt
monébatur monérétur
monébamur monérémur
monébamini monérémini
monébantur monérentur
FutTurRE
monébor
monéberis (-re)
monébitur
monébimur
monébimini
monébuntur
1 See § 179. b. 1.
§ 185] SECOND CONJUGATION 97
Active Voice Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT PERFECT
monui monuerim monitus sum! monitus sim!
monuisti monueris monitus es monitus sis
monuit monuerit monitus est monitus sit
monuimus monuerimus monitisumus moniti simus
monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis
monuérunt (-re) monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint
PLUPERFECT PLUPERFECT
monueram monuissem monitus eram! monitus essem !
monueras monuissés monitus eras monitus essés
monuerat monuisset - monitus erat monitus esset
monueramus monuissémus monitierdmus moniti essémus
monueratis monuissétis moniti eratis moniti essétis
monuerant monuissent moniti erant moniti essent
Future PEerFrect
Future PERFECT
monuerd monitus er6 1
monueris monitus eris
monuerit monitus erit
monuerimus moniti erimus
monueritis moniti eritis
monuerint moniti erunt
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural Singular Plural
PrEsENT moné monéte PRESENT monére monémini
FurureE monéto monétote FurTure monétor
monéto monento monétor monentor
INFINITIVE
PRESENT monére monéri
PerFect monuisse monitus esse
FourureE monitirus esse monitum fri
PARTICIPLES
Present monéns, -entis PERFECT monitus, -a, -um
Future monitirus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE monendus, -a,-um
GERUND SUPINE
monendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 monitum, moniti
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
98 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 186
THIRD CONJUGATION (é-STEMS)
186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular,
see § 197) which add &- to the root to form the present stem, with
a few whose root ends in &.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, teg6, tegére, téxi, téctum ;
Passive, tegor, tegi, téctus sum.
PERFECT STEM téx- 1
PRESENT STEM tege- SUPINE STEM téct-
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT PRESENT
tegé,? I cover tegam ? - tegor? tegar?
tegis, you cover tegas tegeris (-re) tegaris (-re)
tegit, he covers tegat tegitur tegatur
tegimus tegamus tegimur tegamur
tegitis tegatis tegimini tegamini
tegunt tegant teguntur tegantur
IMPERFECT IMPERFECT
tegébam tegerem tegébar tegerer
tegébas tegerés tegébaris (-re) tegeréris (-re)
tegébat tegeret tegébatur tegerétur
tegébamus tegerémus tegébamur teger6mur
tegébatis tegerétis tegébamini tegerémini
tegébant tegerent tegébantur tegerentur
FUTURE FUTURE
tegam ” tegar?
tegés tegéris (-re)
teget tegétur
tegémus tegémur
tegétis teg6mini
tegent tegentur
1 The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; téx- is for
tég-s- (see § 15. 9).
2 See § 179. ¢. 1.
§ 186] THIRD CONJUGATION 99
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
téxi téxerim
téxisti téxeris
téxit téxerit
téximus téxerimus
téxistis téxeritis
téxérunt (-re) téxerint
PLUPERFECT
téxeram téxissem
téxerds téxissés
téxerat téxisset
téxeramus téxiss6émus
téxeratis téxissétis
téxerant téxissent
Future PERFECT
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
téctus sum + téctus sim !
téctus es téctus sis
téctus est téctus sit
técti sumus técti simus
técti estis técti sitis
técti sunt técti sint
PLUPERFECT
téctus essem
téctus essés
téctus esset
téctus eram }
téctus eras
téctus erat
técti essémus
técti essétis
técti essent
técti eramus
técti eratis
técti erant
Future PEerRFrEctT
téxerd téctus erd*
téxeris téctus eris
téxerit téctus erit
téxerimus técti erimus
téxeritis técti eritis
téxerint técti erunt
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Present tege tegite tegere tegimini
FUTURE tegit6 tegitdte tegitor
tegit6 teguntd tegitor teguntor
INFINITIVE
Present tegere tegi
Perrect’ téxisse téctus esse
Future téctiirus esse téctum iri
PARTICIPLES
Present teg6ns, -entis PERFECT téctus, -a, -um
Furure téctiirus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE tegendus (-undus)
GERUND SUPINE
tegendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 téctum, técti
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
100
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
FOURTH CONJUGATION (z-STEMS)
187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i
to the root to form the present stem.
[g 187
Principat Parts: Active, audi, audire, audivi, auditum ;
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus sum.
PRESENT STEM audi-
ACTIVE VOICE
PERFECT STEM audiv-
SUPINE STEM audit-
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT PRESENT
audi6, I hear audiam } audior audiar }
audis, you hear audias audiris (-re) audiaris (-re)
audit, he hears audiat auditur audiatur
audimus audiamus audimur audiamur
auditis audiatis audimini audiamini
audiunt audiant audiuntur audiantur
IMPERFECT IMPERFECT
audiébam ! audirem audiébar ! audirer
audiébas audirés audiébaris(-re) audiréris (-re)
audiébat audiret audiébatur audirétur
audiébamus audirémus audiébamur audirémur
audiébatis audirétis audiébamini audirémini
audiébant audirent audiébantur audirentur
FurTrurRE FUTURE
audiam audiar }
audiés audiéris (-re)
audiet audiétur
audiémus audiémur
audiétis audiémini
audient audientur
1 See § 179. d.
§ 187]
FOURTH CONJUGATION
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
audivi audiverim
audivisti audiveris
audivit audiverit
audivimus audiverimus
audivistis audiveritis
audivérunt (-re) audiverint
PLUPERFECT
audiveram audivissem
audiveras audivissés
audiverat audivisset
audiveramus audivissémus
audiveratis audivissétis
audiverant audivissent
Future PERFECT
101
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
auditus sum !
auditus es
auditus est
auditi sumus
auditi estis
auditi sunt
auditus sim
auditus sis
auditus sit
auditi simus
auditi sitis
auditi sint
PLUPERFECT
auditus eram !
auditus eras
auditus erat
auditi eramus
auditi eratis
auditi erant
auditus essem 1
auditus essés
auditus esset
auditi essémus
auditi essétis
auditi essent
Future PERFECT
Plural
audimini
audiuntor
%
auditus, -a, -um
GERUNDIVE audiendus, -a, -um
audiver6 auditus er6 !
audiveris auditus eris
audiverit auditus erit
audiverimus auditi erimus
audiveritis auditi eritis
audiverint auditi erunt
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural Singular
PRESENT audi audite audire
Furure audit6 auditdte auditor
audit6 audiuntd auditor
INFINITIVE
PRESENT audire audiri
PerFrect audivisse auditus esse
FurTure auditiirus esse auditum iri
PARTICIPLES
Present audiéns, -ientis PERFECT
FutTureE auditiirus, -a, -um
GERUND SUPINE
audiendi, -d6, -dum, -d6
auditum, auditi
1 See feotnote 1, p. 94.
102 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB — [§ 188
VERBS IN -20 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -i5 have certain forms
of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the
i of the stem before a consonant and also before i, i, and & (except
in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).}
Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : —
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, capid, capére, cépi, captum ;
Passive, capior, capi, captus sum.
PRESENT STEM Capie- (cape-)
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
capi6, I take capiam
capis, you take capias
capit, he takes capiat
capimus capiamus
capitis capiatis
capiunt capiant
IMPERFECT
capiébam caperem
FUTURE
capiam
capiés
capiet, etc.
PERFECT
cépi _ céperim
PLUPERFECT
céperam * cépissem
Future PERFECT
céperd
PERFECT STEM Cép- SUPINE STEM capt-
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_ PRESENT
capior capiar
caperis (-re) capiaris (-re)
capitur capiatur
capimur capiamur
capimini capidmini
capiuntur capiantur
IMPERFECT
capiébar caperer
FUTURE
capiar
capiéris (-re)
capiétar, etc.
PERFECT
captus sum captus sim
PLUPERFECT
captus eram captus essem
Future PERFECT
captus erd
1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such
yerbs is not fully understood,
§§ 188-190] DEPONENT VERBS 103
Active Voice Passive Voice
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT PRESENT
Singular Plural Singular Plural
cape capite capere * capimini
-FUTURE FuTuRE
capits capitdte capitor
capit6 capiunto capitor capiuntor
INFINITIVE
PRESENT capere capi
PerRFecT cépisse captus esse
Future captiirus esse captum iri
PARTICIPLES
PrEsENT capiéns, -ientis PERFECT captus, -a, -um
Future captirus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE capiendus, -a, -um
GERUND SUPINE
capiendi, -d6, -dum, -d6d captum, -tii
Parallel Forms
189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which
only one is generally found in classic use : —
lavo, lavare or lavére, wash (see § 211. e).
scated, scatére or scatére, gush forth.
lidific6, -are, or lidificor, -ari, mock.
fulgd, fulgére, or fulged, fulgére, shine.
DEPONENT VERBS
190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice,
with an active or reflexive signification : —
First conjugation: miror, mirari, miratus, admire.
Principat | Second conjugation : vereor, veréri, veritus, fear.
Parts Third conjugation: sequor, sequi, secitus, follow.
Fourth conjugation: partior, partiri, partitus, share.
104
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
Pres. miror
Impr.
For.
PERF.
Puvp.
He;
PREs.
Impr.
PERF.
Puoup.
PREs.
Fort.
PREs.
PERF.
For.
PREs.
For.
PERF.
GER.
miraris (-re)
miratur
miramur
miramini
mirantur
mirabar
mirabor
miratus sum
miratus eram
miratus ers
mirer
mirarer
miraitus sim
miratus essem
mirare
mirator
mirari
mirditus esse
mirattirus esse
mirans
miratirus
miratus
mirandus
mirandi, -6, etc.
miratum, -ti
INDICATIVE
vereor sequor
ver6ris (-re) sequeris (-re)
verétur sequitur
ver6mur sequimur
verémini sequimini
verentur sequuntur
verébar sequébar
verébor sequar
veritus sum
veritus eram
veritus erd
secitus sum
seciitus eram
seciitus er6
SUBJUNCTIVE
verear sequar
verérer sequerer
veritus sim secitus sim
veritus essem
secitus essem
IMPERATIVE
verére
verétor
sequere
sequitor
INFINITIVE
veréri
veritus esse
veritiirus esse
sequi
seciitus esse
secittirus esse
PARTICIPLES
veréns sequéns
verittirus secitirus
veritus sectitus
verendus sequendus
GERUND
verendi, etc. sequendi, etc.
SUPINE
veritum, -tii seciitum, -ti
[§ 190
partior
partiris (-re)
partitur
partimur
partimini
partiuntur
partiébar
partiar
partitus sum
partitus eram
partitus erd
partiar
partirer
partitus sim
partitus essem
partire
partitor
partiri
partitus esse
partitirus esse
partiéns
partittirus
partitus
partiendus
partiendi, etc.
partitum, -ti
§§ 190, 191] DEPONENT VERBS 105
a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : —
sequéns, follqwing. secitirus, about to follow.
seciitus, having followed. sequendus, fo be followed.
b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs
otherwise deponent it is often passive: as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, gained
(or having gained).
ce. The future infinitive is always in the active form :- thus, sequor has
seciitiirus (-a, -um) esse (not secttum iri).
d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive
verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally : —
hdc cénfitendum est, this must be acknowledged.
moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
e. Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond-
ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 156. a. n.).
f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, criminor,
T accuse, or I am accused.
g- About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and
passive forms: as, mered or mereor, J deserve.
191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju-
gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents
are irregular : — .
adsentior, -iri, adsénsus, assent. obliviscor, -i, oblitus, forget.
apiscor, (-ip-), -i, aptus (-eptus), get. opperior, -iri, oppertus, await.
défetiscor, -i, -fessus, faint. ordior, -iri, Grsus, begin.
expergiscor, -i, -perréctus, rouse. orior, -iri, ortus (oritirus), rise (3d
experior, -iri, expertus, try. conjugation in most forms).
fateor, -éri, fassus, confess. paciscor, -i, pactus, bargain.
fruor, -i, friictus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -i, passus (-pessus),
fungor, -i, finctus, fulfil. suffer.
gradior (-gredior), -i, gressus, step. -plector, -i, -plexus, clasp.
irascor, -i, iratus, be angry. proficiscor, -1, profectus, set out.
labor, -i, lapsus, fall. queror, -i, questus, complain.
loquor, -i, lociitus, speak. reor, réri, ratus, think.
métior, -iri, ménsus, measure. revertor, -i, reversus, return.
-miniscor, -i, -mentus, think. ringor, -i, rictus, snarl.
morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moritiirus), die. sequor, -i, seciitus, follow.
nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus), find. tueor, -éri, tuitus (titus), defend.
nascor, -i, natus, be born. ulciscor, -i, ultus, avenge.
nitor, -i, nisus (nixus), strive. itor, -i, isus, use, employ.
Norr.— The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperi6, -ire.
Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys-
tem, reverti, reverteram, etc.
106 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 191-194
a. The following deponents have no supine stem : —
dévertor, -ti, turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -éri, heal.
diffiteor, -éri, deny. reminiscor, -i, call to mind.
fatiscor, -i, gape. vescor, -i, feed upon.
liquor, -i, melé (intrans.).
Nors.— Deponents are really passive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has
disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in
the active at some period of the language.
Semi-Deponents “
192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the
present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents.
These are called Semi-deponents. They are: —
auded, audére, ausus, dare. gauded, gaudére, gavisus, rejoice.
fid6, fidére, fisus, trust. soled, solére, solitus, be wont.
a. From aude there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sddés
(for si audés), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
b._ The active forms vapulé, vapulare, be flogged, and véned, vénire, be sold
(contracted from yvénum ire, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri, to be made
(§ 204), and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accédere, to be added.
Norr.— The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: itro, itirare,
itratus, swear; nibo, niibere, niipta, marry; placed, placére, placitus, please.
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS
193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a ‘‘ roundabout way of speak-
ing.” In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Peri-
phrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect
Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation (amatus sum, eram, etc.).
Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases con-
sisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum.
Nort. — The Future Passive Infinitive, as amatum iri, formed from the infinitive
passive of ed, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a
periphrastic form (§ 203. a).
194, There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respec-
tively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
a. The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active
Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes a future or intended action.
b. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with
the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.
e. The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indica-
tive and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive.
§§ 195, 196] THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 107
‘
195. The First Periphrastic Conjugation : —
INDICATIVE
PRESENT amaturus sum, J am about to love
IMPERFECT amatirus eram, J was about to love
FutTurE amaturus er6, I shall be about to love
PERFECT amaturus fui, J have been, was, about to love
PLUPERFECT amatirus fueram, J had been about to love
Future PERFECT amaturus fuerd, J shall have been about to love
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT amatirus sim
IMPERFECT amatirus essem
PERFECT amatirus fuerim
PLUPERFECT amaturus fuissem
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amaturus esse, to be about to love
PERFECT amatirus fuisse, to have been about to love
So in the other conjugations : —
Second : monitiirus sum, I am about to advise.
Third: téctirus sum, I am about to cover.
Fourth: auditirus sum, J am about to hear.
Third (in -id): captirus sum, I am about to take.
196. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation : —
INDICATIVE
PRESENT amandus sum, J am to be, must be, loved
IMPERFECT amandus eram, J was to be, had to be, loved
FurTurEe ‘amandus er6, J shall have to be loved
PERFECT amandus fui, J was to be, had to be, loved
PLUPERFECT amandus fueram, J had had to be loved
Furure PEerFrect amandus fuer6, J srall have had to be loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT amandus sim
IMPERFECT amandus essem
PERFECT amandus fuerim
PLUPERFECT amandus fuissem
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amandus esse, to have to be loved
PERFECT
amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved
108 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 196-198
So in the other conjugations : —
Second : monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised.
Third: tegendus sum, I am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth: audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.
Third (in -id): capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.
IRREGULAR VERBS
197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the
present system directly to the root,! or combine two verbs in
their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are
sum, vold, ferd, edd, dd, ed, qued, fis, and their compounds.
Sum has already been inflected in § 170.
198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with
the prepositions ab, ad, dé, in, inter, ob, prae, prd (earlier form prod),
sub, super. ;
a. In the compound présum (help), prd retains its original d before e:
PrIncipaL Parts: prosum, prodesse, profui, profutirus
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular Plural Singular Plural
PRESENT prosum prosumus prosim prosimus
prodes prodestis prosis prositis
prodest prosunt prosit prosint
IMPERFECT proéderam prdderamus prodessem ’ prddessémus
FutTurRE proderé proderimus ae —
PERFECT profui profuimus profuerim prdfuerimus
PLUPERFECT profueram prdéfueramus profuissem prdfuissémus
For. Perr. préofuer6 prdfuerimus a
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT prddes, prddeste Furvure prddest6, prodestdte
INFINITIVE
PresENT proddesse PERFECT prodfuisse
Future profutiirus esse
PARTICIPLE
Furvre profutirus
1 These are athematic verbs, see § 174. 2. *",
§§ 198, 199] IRREGULAR VERBS 109
b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making
the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows : —1
PRINCIPAL PARTS: possum, posse, potui?
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular Plural Singular | Plural
PRESENT possum possumus possim possimus
potes potestis possis possitis
potest possunt possit possint
IMPERFECT poteram poteramus possem possémus
_ Future poterd poterimus a -- —-
PERFECT potui potuimus potuerim potuerimus
PLUPERFECT potueram potueramus potuissem potuissémus
Fur. Perr. potuerd potuerimus a ———
INFINITIVE _
PRES. posse Perr. potuisse
PARTICIPLE
Pres. poténs (adjective), powerful
199. vol6, ndld, mals
P vol6, velle, volui, , be willing, will, wish
RINCIPAL See pyres BS :
Biases: nol6, ndlle, ndlui, , be unwilling, will not
malo, malle, malui,
, be more willing, prefer
Notre. —N6dl6 and malo are compounds of vol6d. N616 is for ne-vol6, and mal6 for ma-
vol6 from mage-vol6.
INDICATIVE
PRESENT volé nolo malo
Vis 3 non vis mavis
vult (volt) non vult mavult
volumus ndlumus malumus
vultis (voltis) non vyultis mavultis
volunt nolunt malunt
Imeerrect volébam nolébam malébam
Furure volam, volés, etc. ndlam, nélés, etc. §malam, mialés, etc.
PERFECT volui nolui malui
Piuperrect volueram nodlueram malueram
Fur. Perr. voluerd ndluerd maluerd
1The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are
potesse ; possiem, -és, -et; poterint, potisit (for possit) ; potestur and possitur (used with
a passive infinitive, cf. § 205. a). }
2 Potui is from an obsolete fpotére, 8 Vis is from a different root.
110 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 199, 200
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT velim, -is, -it, nolim malim
velimus, -itis, -int
IMPERFECT vellem,} -és, -et, nodllem mallem
vellémus, -étis, -ent
PERFECT voluerim noluerim maluerim
Piurerrect voluissem nodluissem miAluissem
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT — noli, ndlite a
Future — _- ndlité, ete. —_——
INFINITIVE
PRESENT velle! nolle mille
PERFECT voluisse ndluisse mialuisse
‘PARTICIPLES
PRESENT voléns, -entis ndléns, -entis —-
Norr. — The forms sis for si vis, siiltis for si vultis, and the forms névis (n&-vis),
névolt, mavold, mavolunt, mavelim, mavellem, etc., occur in early writers.
200. Fer6, bear, carry, endure ?
Principat Parts: ferd, ferre,*® tuli, latum
PRESENT STEM fer- PERFECT STEM tul- SUPINE STEM [at-
ACTIVE PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT ferd ferimus feror ferimur
fers fertis ferris (-re) ferimini
fert ferunt fertur feruntur
IMPERFECT ferébam ferébar
Future feram ferar
PERFECT tuli latus sum
Prurerrect . tuleram latus eram
Future Perrect tulerd latus erd
1 Vellem is for fvel-sém, and velle for tvel-se (cf. es-se), the s being assimilated to
the 1 preceding.
2 Ferd has two independent stems: fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol-) in
the perfect from ToL, root of tollé6. The perfect tetuli occurs inPlautus. Inthe parti-
ciple the root is weakened to tl-, ldtum standing for }tlatum (cf. rAyTés).
8 Ferre, ferrem, are for {fer-se, {fer-sém (cf. es-se, es-sem), s being assimilated to pre-
ceding r; or ferre, ferrem, may be for tferese, tferesém (see § 15. 4).
$ 200]
PRESENT
IMPERFECT
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
PRESENT
FUTURE
PRESENT
PERFECT
FuruRE
PRESENT
FUTURE
GERUND
ferendi, -do, -dum, -dé
IRREGULAR VERBS 111
Active Passive
SUBJUNCTIVE
feram ferar
ferrem 1 ferrer
tulerim latus sim
tulissem latus essem
IMPERATIVE
fer ferte ferre ferimini
fertd fertdte ” fertor
ferto feruntd fertor feruntor
INFINITIVE
ferre ferri
tulisse latus esse
latirus esse latum iri
PARTICIPLES
feréns, -entis PERFECT latus
latirus GERUNDIVE ferendus
SUPINE
latum, lati
a. The compounds of feré, conjugated like the simple verb, are the
following : —
ad-
au-, ab-
con-
dis-, di-
ex-, 6-
ob-
adferd
adferre
auferd auferre
confer6 conferre
differd differre
efferd efferre
inferd inferre
offers offerre
referd referre
sufferd sufferre *
attuli
abstuli
contuli
distuli
extuli
intuli
obtuli
rettuli
sustuli2
allatum
ablatum
collatum
dilatum
élatum
ilatum
oblatum
relatum
sublatum?
Notr:—In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially
to be noted. ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
1 See note 3, page 110.
2 Sustuli and sublatum also supply the perfect and participle of the verb tolld,
112 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 201
201. Ed, edere, édi, ésum, eat, is regular of the third conjuga-
tion, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alter-
native forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic
vowel. ‘These are in full-faced type.
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT edé, edis (és!), edit (ést)
edimus, editis (éstis), edunt
ImperFect edébam, edébias, etc. —
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit)
edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint)
ImpeRFEctT ederem, ederés (éssés), ederet (ésset)
ederémus (€ssémus), ederétis (éssétis), ederent (éssent)
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural
PRESENT ede (és) edite (éste)
Future editd (éstd) editdte (Estite)
editd (éstd) edunto
INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES
PRESENT edere (ésse) Present’ edéns, -entis
PERFECT édisse Future ésurus?
Future éstrrus esse
GERUND
edendi, -d6, -dum, -dé
SUPINE
ésum, ésii ?
a. In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third per-
son singular: Present Indicative éstur, Imperfect Subjunctive éssétur.
1 Inés etc. thee is long. In the corresponding forms of sum, eis short. The differ-
ence in quantity between 6d6 and és etc. depends upon inherited vowel variation (§17. a).
? Old forms are éssiirus and supine éssum.
ee oe
5 ES a ee
§ 202]
IRREGULAR VERBS
113
202. The irregular verb dé, give, is conjugated as follows: —
PRESENT STEM da-
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT do damus
das datis
dat dant
IMPERFECT dabam
Future dabo
PERFECT dedi
PLUPERFECT dederam
Future Perrect dederd
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT dem, dés, det, ete.
IMPERFECT darem
PERFECT dederim
PLUPERFECT dedissem
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT da date
Future datd datdte
dato danto
INFINITIVE
PRESENT dare
PERFECT dedisse
Future datiirus esse
PARTICIPLES
PRESENT dans, dantis PERFECT
Future datirus
GERUND
PRINCIPAL Parts: d6, dare, dedi, datum
dandi, -d6, -dum, -dé
SUPINE
datum, dati
For compounds of dé, see § 209. a. nN.
PERFECT STEM ded-
SuPINE STEM dat-
PASSIVE
damur
daris (-re)- damini
datur dantur
dabar
dabor
datus sum
datus eram
datus erd
, déris (-re), détur, ete.
darer
datus sim
datus essem
dare damini
dator
dator
dantor
dari
datus esse
datum iri
datus
GERUNDIVE dandus
114 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 208
203. Eb, go. Principat Parts: 66, ire, ii (ivi), tum
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT e6, Is, it eam, eas, eat
imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant
IMPERFECT ibam, ibas, ibat irem, irés, iret
ibamus, ibatis, ibant irémus, irétis, irent
Future ib6, ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, bunt
PERFECT : il (ivi) ierim (iverim)
PLUPERFECT ieram (iveram) issem (Ivissem)
Furure Perrect ierd (iverd)
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT i Furvure itd, itdte
ite itd, euntd
INFINITIVE
PRESENT ire PERFECT isse (ivisse) Future itiirus esse
PARTICIPLES
PreEsENT iéns, gen. euntis Future itirus GeRUNDIVE eundum
GERUND eundi, -dé, fit, -do SUPINE itum, iti
a. The compounds aded, surah. ined, enter, and some others, are tran-
sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive : —
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. adeor Impr. adibar Pres. adear
adiris Fur. adibor Impr. adirer
aditur Perr. aditus sum Perr, aditus sim
adimur Puiup. aditus eram Puiup. aditus essem
adimini F. P. aditus erd
adeuntur
INFIN. adiri aditus esse PART. aditus adeundus
Thus inflected, the forms of ed are used impersonally in the third person
singular of the passive : as, itum est (§ 208.d). The infinitive iriis used with
the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (§ 193.N.). The verb
véned, be sold (i.e. vénum e6, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
6. In the perfect system of ed the forms with v are very rare in the simple
verb and unusual in the compounds.
¢. ii before s is regularly contracted to 1: as, isse.
1 The reot of ed is HI (weak form). This ei becomes i except before a, 0, and u,
where it becomes e (cf. ed, eam, eunt). The strong form ef the root, i, is shortened
before a vowel or final -t; the weak form, i, appears in itum and itirus,
§§ 203, 204] IRREGULAR VERBS 115
d. The compound ambié is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth
conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative.
é. Pro with ed retains its original d: as, préded, prodis, prodit.
204. Facid, facere, féci, factum, make, is regular. But it has im-
perative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future
perfect faxd, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of facid is —
fid, fiéri, factus sum, be made or become.
The present system of fid is regular of the fourth conjugation,
but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri.
Norr. — The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT fid, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat
[fimus], [fitis], fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant
IMPERFECT fiébam, fiébas, etc. fierem, fierés, etc.
Furure fiam, fiés, etc.
PERFECT factus sum factus sim
PLUPERFECT factus eram factus essem
Future Perrect factus erd
IMPERATIVE
[fi, fite, fits, ——]}
INFINITIVE
Present fieri Perrect factus esse Future factum iri
PARTICIPLES
Perrect§ factus GerunpivE faciendus
a. Most compounds of facid with prepositions weaken & to iin the present
stem and to é in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -i6 : —
conficid, cénficére, cénféci, cénfectum, finish.
conficior, confici, confectus.
b. Other compounds retain a, and have -fi6 in the passive: as, benefaci6,
-facere, -féci, -factum ; passive benefi0, -fieri, -factus, benefit. These retain the
accent of the simple verb: as, bene-fa’cis (§ 12. a, Exc.).
c. A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds : —
confit, it happens, confiunt ; confiat ; cOnfieret, confierent ; cOnfieri.
défit, it lacks, défiunt; défiet ; défiat ; défieri.
effieri, to be effected.
infid, begin (to speak), infit.
interfiat, let him perish; interfieri, to perish.
superfit, it remains over; superfiat, superfieri.
1 The imperative is rarely found, and then only in early writers.
116 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 208
DEFECTIVE VERBS
205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only
tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly.
These are —
coepi,! J began Odi,? J hate memini,® J remember
INDICATIVE
PERFECT coepi ddi memini
PLUPERFECT coeperam dderam memineram
Fourure Perrecr coeperd dderd meminero
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT coeperim oderim meminerim
PLUPERFECT coepissem ddissem meminissem
IMPERATIVE
memento
“f mementote
INFINITIVE
PERFECT coepisse ddisse meminisse
FUTURE coeptirus esse Ostrus esse
PARTICIPLES
PERFECT | coeptus, begun dsus, hating or hated
FuTuRE coepturus osurus, likely to hate
a. The passive of coepi is often used with the passive infinitive: as,
coeptus sum vocari, I began to be called, but coepi vocare, I began to call.
For the present system incipid is used.
Notre. — Early and rare forms are coepid, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
6. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of 6di and memini have
the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively : —
di, I hate; dderam, I hated (was hating) ; dderd, I shall hate.
Note 1.—A present participle meminéns is early and late.
Note 2.— Novi and consuévi (usually referred to ndscd and consuéscd) are often used
in the sense of J know (have learned) and J am accustomed (have become accustomed)
as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see
476. N.).
1 Root Ap (as in apiscor) with co(n-).
2 Root op, as in Sdium. 8 Root MEN, as in méns,
ea ae Se ee ae! ee
oS oe ee
Ae
ey ee vil Cea 6 I eB RINE
§ 206] DEFECTIVE VERBS 117
206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such
are maered, -ére, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); ferid, -ire, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts
occur in its compounds: as, vadd, vadere, in-vasi, in-vasum.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : —
a. Aid, I say: —
INDIc. Pres. 4i0, ais,! ait; ——-, ——, diunt
Imrr. diébam,? 4iébas, etc.
suBJV. Pres. ——, ids, fiat; ——-, ——, diant
IMPER. ai (rare)
PART. aiéns
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except some-
times in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see
§ 6. c): — thus aid was pronounced 4i-yd and was sometimes written aiid.
6. Inquam, J say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations
(cf. the English quoth).
INDIc. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
Impr. ——, ——, inquiébat ; ——~, ——-, ——
Four. ——, inquiés, inquiet ; ——-, ——, ——
Perr. inquii, inquisti, ——- ; ——, ——, ——
IMPER. Pres. inque
Fur. inquitd
The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the
future inquiés, inquiet.
c. The deponent fari, to speak, has the following forms : —
INDIC. Pres. ——, ——, fatur; + ——, fantur
Fur. fabor, , fabitur ; ~— —
Perr, ——, ——, fatus est; ——, ——, fati sunt
Puiur. fatus eram, ——, fatus erat ; »—, ——
IMPER. Pres. fare
INFIN. Pres. fari
PART. Pres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular)
Perr, fatus (having spoken)
Ger. fandus (to be spoken of)
GERUND, gen. fandi, abl. fandd SUPINE fatii
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter,
occur: as, praefatur, praefamur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The com-
pound infans is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefandus, are
used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.
1 The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain.
2 An old imperfect aibam, aibas, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found.
9
118 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§ 206
d. Ques, I can, neque, I cannot, are conjugated like e6. They are rarely
used except in the present. Qued is regularly accompanied by a negative.
The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose.
The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT PRESENT
qued queam nequed (non qued) nequeam
quis queas nequis nequeas
quit queat nequit nequeat
quimus queamus nequimus nequeamus
quitis nequitis —
queunt queant nequeunt nequeant
IMPERFECT IMPERFECT
quibam a —- nequirem
quibat quiret nequibat nequiret
a quirent nequibant nequirent
Future FuTurRE
quibd nequibit
quibunt nequibunt
PERFECT PERFECT
quivi — nequivi ~ nequiverim
—— — nequisti
quivit quiverit (-ierit) nequivit (nequiit) nequiverit
quivérunt (-ére) quierint nequivérunt (-quiére) nequiverint
PLUPERFECT PLUPERFECT
— —. nequiverat (-ierat) nequivisset (-quisset)
— quivissent nequiverant (-ierant) nequissent
INFINITIVE
quire quisse nequire nequivisse (-quisse)
PARTICIPLES
quiéns nequiéns, nequeuntés
Nore. — A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives: as, quitur, queuntur,
quitus sum, queatur, queantur,nequitur,nequitum ; but none of theseoccurs in classic prose.
§§ 206, 207] IMPERSONAL VERBS
é. Quaesd, J ask, beg (original form of quaerd), has —
INDIC, PREs. quaeso, quaestimus
119
Nore. — Other forms of quaesd are found occasionally in early Latin. For the per-
fect system (quaesivi, etc.), see quaerd (§ 211. d).
f. Ovare, to triumph, has the following : —
INDIC. Pres. ovds, ovat
SUBJV. PreEs. ovet
Impr. ovaret
PART. ovans, ovatirus, ovatus
GER. ovandi
g. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : —
Pres. singular salvé, plural salvéte, Fur. salvétd, hail! (from sal-
vus, safeand sound). An infinitive salvére and the indica-
tive forms salved, salvétis, salvébis, are rare.
Pres. singular avé (or havé), plural avéte, Fur. avété, hail or fare-
well. An infinitive avére also occurs.
Pres, singular cédo, plural cédite (cette), give, tell.
Pres. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).
IMPERSONAL VERBS
207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third
person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called
Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.
The passive
of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
Cong. I I m1
it is plain it is allowed it chances
constat licet accidit
constabat licébat accidébat
constabit licébit accidet -
cOnstitit licuit, -itum est accidit
constiterat licuerat acciderat
constiterit licuerit acciderit
constet liceat accidat
constaret licéret accideret
constiterit licuerit acciderit
constitisset licuisset accidisset
constare licére accidére
constitisse licuisse — accidisse
-statirum esse -itiirum esse —
IV
it results
évenit
éveniébat
éveniet
événit
événerat
événerit
éveniat
éveniret
événerit
événisset
évenire
éyénisse
-tiirum esse
Pass. Cong. I
it is fought
pugnatur
pugnabatur
pugnabitur
pugnatum est
pugnatum erat
pugnatum erit
pugnétur
pugnarétur
pugnatum sit
pugnatum esset
pugnari
pugnatum esse
pugnatum iri
1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no repre-
sentative in Latin, though id, hic, illud, are often used nearly in the same way.
120 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$ 208
208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows: —
a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : —
vesperascit (inceptive, § 263. 1), it grows late. ningit, it snows.
liciscit hic, it is getting light. fulgurat, it lightens.
grandinat, it hails. tonat, it thunders.
pluit, i rains. rorat, the dew falls.
Nors. — In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb
is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject: as, luppiter tonat, Jupiter
thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the
slings rain stones.
b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes
the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb
(§ 354. b) :—
miseret, it grieves. paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts. pudet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies.
miseret mé, I pity (it distresses me) ; pudet mé, I am ashamed.
Norsr. — Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity (am moved
to pity); and occasionally other parts: as, paenitiirus (as from {paenid), paenitendus,
pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454,
569. 2):—
accidit, contingit, évenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens.
libet, it pleases. délectat, iuvat, it delights.
licet, it is permitted. oportet, it is fitting, ought.
certum est, it is resolved. necesse est, it is needful.
constat, it is clear. praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases). interest, réfert, i¢ concerns.
vidétur, it seems, seems good. vacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming. restat, superest, it remains.
Notrrt.— Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vacé, I have leisure.
Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles
libéns and licéns are used as adjectives.
d. The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used Bctgcerers 2 (see
synopsis in § 207): —
ventum est, they came (there was coming).
pignatur, there is fighting (it is fought).
itur, some one goes (it is gone),
parcitur mihi, J am spared (it is spared to me, see § 372).
Nor. — The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or
middle) meaning, the action se regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the
French cela se fait).
§§ 209, 210] CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS 121
CLASSIFIED LIstS OF VERBS
First Conjugation
209. There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjuga-
tion, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem :
armé, arm (arma, arms); caecé, to blind (caecus, blind); exsuld, be an exile
(exsul, an exile) (§ 259).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like amd; though of many only a few
forms are found in use.
a. The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
Those marked * have also regular forms.
crepo, crepui (-crepavi), -crepit-, resound. plicd, *-plicui, *-plicit-, fold.
cubo, *cubui, -cubit-, lie down. potd, potavi, *pot-, drink.
a0, dire, dedi, dat-, give (pA). seco, secui, sect-, cut.
domé, domui, domit-, subdue. sond, sonui, sonit-,1 sound.
fricd, fricui, *frict-, rub. std, steti, -stat- (-stit-), stand.
iuvd (ad-iuv6), itivi, iit-,) help. tond, tonui, *-tonit-, thunder.
mico, micui, ——, glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid.
necd, *necui, necat- (-nect-), ill.?
Notr.— Compounds of these verbs have the following forms: —
crepd: con-crepui, dis-crepui or -crepavi ; in-crepui or -crepavi.
d0: circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, -dedi, -dat-, of the first con-
jugation. Other compounds belong to the root DHA, put, and are of the third
conjugation: as, condd, condére, condidi, conditum.
micd: di-micavi, -micat-; &-micui, -micat-.
plicd: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plicd, -plicavi, -plicat-; ex-plicd (unfold), -ui, -it-;
(explain), -avi, -dt-; im-plicd, -avi (-ui), -atum (-itum).
std: cdn-std, -stiti, (-staturus) ; ad-, re-st0, -stiti, ——-; ante- (anti-), inter-, super-
std, -steti, ——; circum-st0, -steti (-stiti), ——; prae-sto, -stiti, -stit- (-stat-);
di-st0, ex-std, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-staturus).
Second Conjugation
210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conju-
gation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a
corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive in -scé (§ 263. 1): —
caled, be warm ; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calésco, grow warm.
timed, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid ; per-timésco, to take fright.
1 Future Participle also in -atiirus (either in the simple verb or in composition).
2Necd has regularly necAvi, necatum, except in composition.
122
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[$§ 210, 211
a. Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moned, but
many lack the supine (as, arced, ward off; cared, lack; eged, need; timed,
fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maered, be sad).
b. The following keep é in all the systems : —
déled, destroy délére
fled, weep flére
neo, sew nére
vied, plait viére
com-ple6, fill up? -plére
délévi délétum
flévi flétum
névi [nétum]
[viévi] viétum
-plévi -plétum
ce. The following show special irregularities : —
alged, alsi, be cold.
arde6, arsi, arsiirus, burn.
auded, ausus sum, dare.
auged, auxi, auct-, increase.
caved, cavi, caut-, care.
cénsed, cénsui, céns-, value.
cieOd, civi, cit-, excite.
doced, docui, doct-, teach.
faved, favi, faut-, favor.
ferved, fervi (ferbui),
foved, fovi, fot-, cherish.
fulged, fulsi, » shine.
gauded, gavisus sum, rejoice.
haered, haesi, haes-, cling.
indulged, indulsi, indult-, indulge.
iubed, iussi, iuss-, order.
» glow.
lique6, licui (liqui), » melt.
liiced, lixi, » Shine.
liged, lixi, » mourn.
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait.
misced, -cul, mixt- (mist-), mix.
morde6, momordi, mors-, bite.
moved, movi, mot-, move.
mulced, mulsi, muls-, soothe.
mulged, mulsi, muls-, milk.
(c6)nived, -nivi (-nixi), ——, wink.
(ab)oled, -olévi, -olit-, destroy.
pended, pependi, -péns-, hang.
pranded, prandi, prans-, dine.
ride6, risi, -ris-, laugh.
seded, sédi, sess-, sit.
soled, solitus sum, be wont.
sorbed, sorbui (sorpsi), » suck.
sponded, spopondi, spons-, pledge.
strided, stridi, » whiz.
suddeo, suadsi, suas-, urge.
tened (-tined), tenui, -tent-, hold.
terged, tersi, ters-, wipe.
tonde6, -totondi (-tondi), téns-, shear.
torqued, torsi, tort-, twist.
torre6, torrui, tost-, roast.
turged, tursi, ; swell.
urged, ursi, , urge.
vided, vidi, vis-, see.
voved, vOvi, vot-, vow.
Third Conjugation
211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the
Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Per-
fect Stem : —
a. Forming the perfect stem in s (x) (§ 177. b and note): —
ango, anxi, , choke.
carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pluck.
céd6, cessi, cess-, yield.
cing6, cinxi, cinct-, bind.
claud6, clausi, claus-, shut.
com6, cOmpsi, cOmpt-, comb, deck.
coquo, coxi, coct-, cook.
-cutid, -cussi, -cuss-, shake.
1 And other compounds of -pled.
§ 211]
dém6, démpsi, démpt-, take away.
dicd, dixi, dict-, say.
divid6, divisi, divis-, divide.
diicd, diixi, duct-, guide.
émung6, -miuxi, -minct-, clean out.
fig6, fixi, fix-, fix.
fingd [ria], finxi, fict-, fashion.
flectd, flexi, flex-, bend.
-fligd, -flixi, -flict-, ——, smite.
flud, flixi, flux-, flow.
frends, , frés- (fress-), gnash.
frig6, frixi, frict-, fry.
gerd, gessi, gest-, carry.
iung6, iiinxi, iiinct-, join.
_ laed6, laesi, laes-, hurt.
-licid, -lexi, -lect-, entice (@licui, -licit-).
lado, lisi, lis-, play.
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge.
mitts, misi, miss-, send.
nectd [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-, weave.
nuibo, nipsi, nipt-, marry.
pectd, pexi, pex-, comb.
pergs, perréxi, perréct-, go on.
pingo [ria], pinxi, pict-, paint.
plangd [piac], planxi, planct-, beat.
plaudé, plausi, plaus-, applaud.
plecté, plexi, plex-, braid.
prem6, pressi, press-, press.
prém6, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out.
THIRD CONJUGATION
123
quatid, (-cussi), quass-, shake.
rad0, rasi, ras-, scrape.
rego, réxi, réct-, rule.
répo, répsi, ——, creep.
r0d6, rosi, rds-, gnaw.
scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape.
Scribo, scripsi, script-, write.
sculpo, sculpsi, sculpt-, carve.
serpd, serpsi, » crawl.
sSpargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter.
-spici0, -spexi, -spect-, view.
-stingu6, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench.
string6, strinxi, strict-, bind.
stru6, striixi, striict-, build.
siigd, siixi, siict-, suck.
siim6, simpsi, simpt-, take.
surgd, surréxi, surréct-, rise.
tego, téxi, téct-, shelter.
temn6, -tempsi, -tempt-, despise.
tergd, tersi, ters-, wipe.
ting6, tinxi, tinct-, stain.
trah6, traxi, tract-, drag.
triid6, trisi, tris-, thrust.
ungu6é (ungd), inxi, inct-, anoint.
iird, ussi, ust-, burn.
vado, -vasi, -vas-, go.
vehO, véxi, vect-, draw.
viv6, vixi, vict-, live.
b. Reduplicated in the perfect (§ 177. c): —
cadd, cecidi, cas-, fall.
caed6, cecidi, caes-, cut.
cand, cecini, ——, sing.
curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
discd [pic], didici, ——, learn.
-d6 [pHa], -didi, -dit- (as in ab-d6, etc.,
with créd6, vénds), put.
falld, fefelli, fals-, deceive.
pang6 [PAG], pepigi (-pégi), pact-, fasten,
Siz, bargain.
parc, peperci (parsi), (parsiirus), spare.
parid, peperi, part- (paritirus), bring
Forth.
pelld, pepuli, puls-, drive.
pend6, pependi, péns-, weigh.
poscd, poposci, , demand.
pungd [rue], pupugi (-pinxi), pinct-,
prick.
sistd [sta], stiti, stat-, stop.
tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, touch.
tend6[TEN],tetendi (-tendi),tent-, stretch.
tundé [rup], tutudi, tins- (-tiis-), beat.
ec. Adding u (v) to the verb-root (§ 177. a) :—
al6, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish.
cerno, crévi, -crét-, decree.
cold, colui, cult-, dwell, till.
compéscd, compéscui, ——, restrain.
consuld, -lui, cdnsult-, consult.
crésco, crévi, crét-, increase.
124
-cumbd [cus], -cubui, -cubit-, lie down.
depsd, depsui, depst-, knead.
frem6, fremui, ——, roar.
gemo, gemui, ——, groan.
gignd [Gen], genui, genit-, beget.
met6, messui, -mess-, reap.
mold, molui, molit-, grind.
occuld, occului, occult-, hide.
(ad)olésc6, -évi, -ult-, grow up.
pascd, pavi, past-, feed.
percelld, -culi, -culs-, upset.
pond [ros], posui, posit-, put.
quiéscd, quiévi, quiét-, rest.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§ 211
rapid, rapui, rapt-, seize.
sciscd, scivi, scit-, decree.
sero, Sévi, sat-, sow.
sero, serui, sert-, entwine.
sind, sivi, sit-, permit.
spernd, sprévi, sprét-, scorn.
sternd, stravi, strat-, strew.
stert6, -stertui, , snore.
strep6, strepui, ——, sound.
suéscé, suévi, suét-, be wont.
tex6, texui, text-, weave.
trem6, tremui, , tremble.
vom6, vomui, ——, vomit.
d, Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 177. f):—
arcesso,! -ivi, arcessit-, swmmon.
‘capesso, capessivi, , undertake.
cupid, cupivi, cupit-, desire.
incesso, incessivi, , attack.
lacess6, lacessivi, lacessit-, provoke.
petd, petivi, petit-, seek.
quaerd, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek.
rud6, rudivi, , bray.
sapid, sapivi, ——, be wise.
terd, trivi, trit-, rub.
e. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d): —
ago, égi, act-, drive.
capid, cépi, capt-, take.
edd, édi, Esum, eat (see § 201).
em6, émi, émpt-, buy.
facid, féci, fact-, make (see § 204).
fodid, fodi, foss-, dig.
frango [Frac], frégi, fract-, break.
fugid, figi, (fugitirus), flee.
fundd [run], fidi, fis-, pour.
iacid, iéci, iact-, throw (-icid, -iect-).
lavo, lavi, lét- (laut-), wash (also regu-
lar of first conjugation).
legé,? légi, léct-, gather.
lind [x1], lévi (livi), lit-, smear.
linqud [Lic], -liqui, -lict-, leave.
nodscd [GNO], novi, not- (cd-gnit-, 4-gnit-,
ad-gnit-), know.
rumpo [Rup], ripi, rupt-, burst.
scabo, scabi, , scratch.
vinco [vic], vici, vict-, conquer.
f. Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. e): —
acud, -ui, -iit-, sharpen.
arguo, -ui, -tit-, accuse.
bibs, bibi, (potus), drink.
-cendo, -cendi, -céns-, kindle.
(con)grud, -u1, » agree.
ciidd, -ciidi, -ciis-, forge.
facess6, -ii (facessi), facessit-, execute.
-fendo, -fendi, -féns-, ward off.
finds [Fp], fidi,® fiss-, split.
icd, ici, ict-, hit.
1 Sometimes accers6, etc.
imbu6, -ui, -iit-, give a taste of.
lud, lui, -lit-, wash.
mando, mandi, mans-, chew.
metud, -ui, -it-, fear.
minud, -ui, -it-, lessen.
-nud, -nui, , nod.
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open.
pins6, -si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), bruise.
prehend6, -hendi, -héns-, seize.
ru6, rui, rut- (ruitirus), fall.
2 The following compounds of legé have -léxi: diligé, intellegd, neglegé.
8 In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplica-
tion (§ 177. c. N.).
§§ 211, 212]
scand6, -scendi, -scénsus, climb.
scindd [scrip], scidi,! sciss-, tear.
sid6, sidi (-sédi), -sess-, settle.
solv6, solvi, solit-, loose, pay.
spud, -ui, » spit.
statud, -ui, -it-, establish.
sternuo, -ui, » Sneeze.
stridé, stridi, , whiz.
FOURTH CONJUGATION
125
sud, sui, sit-, sew.
(ex)ud, -ui, -it-, put off.
tribud, -ui, -iit-, assign.
velld, velli (-vulsi), vuls-, pluck.
verro, -verri, vers-, sweep.
vertd, verti, vers-, turn.
viso [vip], visi, vis-, visit.
volv6, volvi, volit-, turn.
NotE.— Several have no perfect or supine: as, claudé, limp; fatiscd, gape; hiscd,
yawn; tolld (sustuli, sublatum, supplied from sufferd), raise; vergd, incline.
Fourth Conjugation
212. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular
derivatives in -irid, as, ésurid, be hungry (cf. § 263. 4) — about
60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being
descriptive verbs: like —
crocid, croak; miigid, bellow; tinnid, tinkle.
a. Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like
audid, though a number lack the supine.
6. The following verbs show special peculiarities : —
amicié, amixi (-cui), amict-, clothe.
aperid, aperui, apert-, open.
comperio, -peri, compert-, find.
farcid, farsi, fartum, stuff.
ferio, + ——, strike.
fulcid, fulsi, fult-, prop.
haurid, hausi, haust- (hausirus), drain.
operid, operui, opert-, cover.
reperio, repperi, repert-, find.
saepid, saepsi, saept-, hedge in.
salié (-silid), salui (salii), [salt- (-sult-)],
leap.
sancid [SAC], sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
sarcid, sarsi, sart-, patch.
sentid, sénsi, séns-, feel.
sepelid, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
venio, véni, vent-, come.
vincid, vinxi, vinct-, bind.
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff.
1 See footnote 3, page 124.
al
126 PARTICLES [$§ 218, 214
PARTICLES
213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections
are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are
either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and
phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are
used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§§ 219 and 222),
ADVERBS
DERIVATION OF ADVERBS
214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows:
a. From adjectives of the jirst and second declensions by changing the
characteristic vowel of the stem to -€: as, caré, dearly, from carus, dear (stem
caro-) ; amicé, like a friend, from amicus, friendly (stem amico-).
Norr. — The ending -é is a relic of an old ablative in -éd (cf. § 43. nN. 1).
b. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem.
Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems : —
fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem Acri-), eager.
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-).
priidenter, prudently, from pridéns (stem priident-).
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
Notes. — This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -repos and in uter, alter.
Ifso,these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf.d) or masculine nominatives.
ce. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of
both forms (-€ and -ter). #[hus dirus, hard, has both diré and diriter ;
miser, wretched, has both miseré and miseriter.
d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and proneyns is often used as an
adverb: as, multum, much ; factj¥, easily ; quid, why.
This is the origin of the endfhg’-ius in fhe coniparative degree of ad-
verbs (§ 218): as, ‘acrius, more keenly (positive Acriter); facilius, more easily
(positive facilé).
Nore. — These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390).
é. The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives,
pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially: aa, falsd, falsely; citd,
§§ 214-216] DERIVATION OF ADVERBS 127
quickly (with shortened 0); récta (via), straight (straightway); crébro, fre-
quently ; volg6, commonly ; forté, by chance; sponté, of one’s own accord.
Norr.— Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abundé, plenti-
Sully (as if from fabundus; cf. abundd, abound) ; saepé, often (as if from tsaepis, dense,
close-packed; cf. saepés, hedge, and saepio, hedge in).
215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which
are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below.
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Neuter Accusative forms: nén (for né-oinom, later inum), not; iterum (compara-
tive of i-, stem of is), a second time; d€mum (superlative of dé, down), at last.
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least
(generally saltem), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular
adverbial termination; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and
verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an
accusative in -tim: as, s€paratim, separately, from séparatus, separate. Some adverbs
that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly ;
perperam, wrongly; tam, so; quam, as.
3. Plural Accusatives: as, alias, elsewhere ; foras, out of doors (as end of motion).
So perhaps quia, because.
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qua, where; intra, within; extra, outside; qui,
how; aliqui, somehow ; foris, out of doors; quod, whither; aded, to that degree; ultro,
beyond; citrd, this side (as end of motion) ; retr6, back; illée (for filld-ce), weakened to
illic, thither. Those in -trd are from comparative stems (cf. wls, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where ; illi, illi-c, there ; peregri (peregré), abroad ;
hic (for thi-ce), here. Also the compounds hodié (probably for fhddié), to-day; perendié,
day after to-morrow.
6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an abla-
tive meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; divinitus, from above, provi-
dentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -d0: as, quidem,
indeed; quondam, once; quando (cf. ddnec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of
time), while; iam, now.
216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together
into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides): —
postmodo, presently (a short time after).
dénud (for dé novs), anew.
vidélicet (for vidé licet), to wit (see, you may).
nihiléminus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
Nore. — Other examples are: —antea, old antidea, before (ante ea, probably abla-
tive or instrumental) ; Hlicéd (in locd), on the spot, immediately ; prorsus, absolutely (pro
vorsus, straight ahead) ; rirsus (re-vorsus), again ; quotannis, yearly (quot annis, as many
years as there are) ; quam-ob-rem, wherefore ; cominus, hand to hand (con manus) ; €minus,
at long range (ex manus); nimirum, without doubt (ni mirum); ob-viam (as in ire obviam,
to go to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), for some time ; forsan (fors an), per-
haps (it’s a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance
whether) ; scilicet (sci, licet), that is to say (know, you may; cf. i-licet, you may go) ;
Actiitum (Acti, on the act, and tum, then).
128 PARTICLES [§ 217
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows : —
a. Adverbs of Place!
hic, here. hiic, hither. hinc, hence. hac, by this way.
ibi, there. e0, thither. inde, thence. ea, by that way.
istic, there. istic, thither. istinc, thence. ista, by that way.
illic, there. illic, thither. illinc, thence. illa (illac), ‘* ‘*
ubi, where. quo, whither. unde, whence. qua, by what way.
alicubi, somewhere. aliqué, somewhither, alicunde, from some- aliqua, by someway.
(to) somewhere. where.
ibidem, in the same eddem, to the same indidem, from the eadem, by the same
place. place. same place. way.
alibi, elsewhere, in alid, elsewhere, to aliunde, from an- alia, in another
another place. another place. other place. way.
ubiubi, wherever. quodqud, whitherso- undecunque, whence- quaqua, in whatever
ever. soever. way.
ubivis, anywhere, quovis, anywhere, undique, from every quavis, by whatever
where you will. whither youwill.. quarter. way.
sicubi, if anywhere. siquo, if anywhere sicunde, if from any- siqua, if anywhere.
(anywhither). where.
nécubi, lest any- néqud, lest any- nécunde, lest from néqua, lest any-
where. whither. anywhere. where.
Nors. — The demonstrative adverbs hic, ibi, istic, illi, illic, and their correlatives,
correspond in signification with the pronouns hic, is, iste, ille (see § 146), and are often
equivalent to these prenouns with a preposition: as, inde=abed,etc. Sothe relative or
interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis,
si-cubi with siquis (see §§ 147-151, with the table of correlatives in § 152).
isque, all the way to; usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citré, to this side ;
intro, inwardly; ultrd, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required);
porro, further on.
quérsum (for qué vorsum, whither turned ?), to what end? hdrsum, this way;
prorsum, forward (prérsus, utterly); intrirsum, inwardly; retrérsum, back-
ward; sirsum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; alidrsum,
another way.
b. Adverbs of Time
quando, when? (interrogative) ; cum (quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc,
now; tunc (tum), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, while; iam dii,
iam diidum, iam pridem, long ago, long since.
1 All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and
-ic are locative, those in -6 and -iic, -4 and -Ac, ablative (see § 215); those in -ine are
from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus illim, illin-c).
omar we
§§ 217, 218] ADVERBS 129
primum (prim), first ; deinde (posted), next after ; postrémum (postrémd), finally ;
postedquam, postquam, when (after that, as soon as).
umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always.
aliquandd, at some time, at length ; quanddque (quandécumque), whenever ; dénique,
at last.
quotiéns (quotiés), how often; totiéns, so often; aliquotiéns, a number of times.
cotidié, every day ; hodié, to-day ; heri, yesterday ; cras, to-morrow ; pridié, the day
before ; postridié, the day after; in diés, from day to day.
nondum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as
possible ; saepe, often; crébro, frequently ; iam non, no longer.
ce. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause
quam, how, as; tam, so ; quamvis, however much, although ; paene, almost ; magis,
more; valdé, greatly ; vix, hardly.
ciir, quaré, why ; ided, idcircd, propterea, on this account, because; ed, therefore ;
ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however.
d. Interrogative Particles
an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether.
nonne, anndn, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all.
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335.
e. Negative Particles
non, not (in simple denial) ; haud, minimé, not (in contradiction) ; né, not (in pro-
hibition) ; néve, neu, nor; nédum, much less.
né, lest; neque, nec, nor; né... quidem, not even.
non modo... vérum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo... sed né... quidem, not only Nor. . . but not even.
si minus, if not; qué minus (qudminus), so as not.
quin (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not ?
né, nec (in composition), not; so in nescid, I know not ; nego, I say no (aid, I say
yes) ; negotium, business (tnec-dtium); ném6 (né- and hem6, old form of homd),.
no one ; né quis, lest any one; neque enim, for... not.
For the use of Negative Particles, see § 325 ff.
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ff.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of
the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative
is the Adverb in -é formed regularly from the superlative of the
Adjective : —
130 PARTICLES [$§ 218-220
caré, dearly (from carus, dear) ; carius, ciarissimé.
miseré (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched); miserius, miserrimé,
leviter (from levis, light) ; levius, levissimé.
audicter (audaciter) (from audax, bold); audacius, audaicissimé.
ben&, well (from bonus, good) ; melius, optimé.
malé, ill (from malus, bad); péius, pessimé.
a. The following are irregular or defective : —
diii, long (in time) ; dititius, diitissimé.
potius, rather; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all.
saepe, often; saepius, ofltener, again; saepissimé.
satis, enough; satius, preferable.
secus, otherwise ; sétius, worse.
multum (mult), magis, maximé, much, more, most.
parum, not enough; minus, less; minimé, least.
niper, newly ; niiperrimé.
temperé, seasonably ; temperius.
Notrs.—In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.
PREPOSITIONS
219. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean-
ing, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the
history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone
were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened,
adverbs were used for greater precision (cf. § 338). These adverbs, from their habitual
association with particular cases, became Prepositions; but many retained also their
independent function as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms: as, the comparative ablativesextra, infra, supra
(for fextera, tinfera, {supera), and the accusatives circum, céram, cum (cf. § 215). Circiter
is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. § 214. b. N.); praeter is the comparative of
prae, propter of prope.1 Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle
of vertd) ; adversus is a compound of versus; trans is probably an old present participle
(ef. in-tra-re) ; while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, dé, ex, ob, is obscure and
doubtful.
220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusa-
tive or with the Ablative.
a. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative : —
ad, to. circiter, about. intra, inside.
adversus, against. cis, citra, this side. idxta, near.
adversum, towards. contra, against. ob, on account of.
ante, before. erga, towards. penes, in the power of.
apud, at, near. extra, outside. per, through.
circa, around. infra, below. pone, behind.
circum, around. inter, among. post, after.
1 The case-form of these prepositions in -ter is doubtful.
ee
uy
§§ 220, 221] PREPOSITIONS ; 131
praeter, beyond. secundum, neat to. ultra, on the further side.
prope, near. supra, above. versus, towards.
- propter, on account of. ‘trans, across.
b. The following prepositions are used with the Ablative :— 1
a, ab, abs, away from, by. é, ex, out of.
absque, without, but for. prae, in comparison with.
codram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for.
cum, with. sine, without.
dé, from. tenus, up to, as far as.
ec. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Abla-
tive, but with a difference in meaning : —
in, into, in. sub, under.
subter, beneath. super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by
the ablative, rest in, a place:
vénit in aedis, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.
disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translita esse existi-
matur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and
thence brought over to Gaul.
sub ilice cOnséderat, he had seated himself under an ilezx.
sub légés mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under
laws).
221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows: —
1. A, ab, away from,’ from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place: as, —ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time: (1) from: as, —ab hora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour
till evening ; (2) just after: as, —ab ed magistrati, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses: 4 reliquis differunt, they differ from the others ; 4 parvulis,
from early childhood ; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city; liberare ab,
to set free from; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hac
parte, on this side; ab ré éius, to his advantage; 4 ré publica, for the interest of
the state.
2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place: as, —ad urbem vénit, he came to the city ; ad meridiem, towards
the south ; ad exercitum, to the army; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; ad urbem,
near the city. -
b. Of time: as, —ad ninam horam, till the ninth hour.
c. With persons: as, —ad eum vénit, he came to him.
1 For palam etc., see § 432.
2 Ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker; compare dé,
down from, and ex, out of.
132 . PARTICLES [§ 224
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia déscendunt, they resort to punishment; ad
haec respondit, to this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] time; adire ad rem
piblicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace; ad latera,
on the flank ; ad arma, toarms; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quem ad modum,
how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred ; ad hoc, besides; omnés ad num, all to
aman; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after).
a. Of place : as, —ante portam, in front of the gate; ante exercitum, in advance
of the army.
b. Of time: as, — ante bellum, before the war.
c. Idiomatic uses: ante urbem captam, before the city was taken ; ante diem ~
quintum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends ; ante quadriennium, four
years before or ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).
4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic): as, —apud forum, at the forum (in the market-
place).
b. With reference to persons or communities: as,—apud Helvétids, among
the Helvetians ; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one’s house ;
apud sé, at home or in his senses ; apud Cicerdnem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circé, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place: templa circé forum, the temples about the forum ; circé sé habet,
he has with him (of persons).
b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers): circé eandem héram,
about the same hour; circa idiis Octidbris, about the fifteenth of October ; circa
decem milia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. dé): circéi quem
ptgna est, with regard to whom, etc. ; circa deds neglegentior, rather neglectful of
(i.e. in worshipping) the gods,
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number : circiter idis Novembris, about the thirteenth of Novem-
ber ; circiter meridiem, about noon.
7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua;
circum illum, with him; légatid circum insulaés missa, an embassy sent to the
islands round about ; circum amicés, to his friends round about.
8. Contra, opposite, against, with the accusative.
contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this.
a. Often as adverb: as, —haec contra, this in reply; contra autem, but en
the other hand ; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand.
9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative.
§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 133
a. Of place: as, —vade mécum, go with me; cum omnibus pee
with all [their] baggage.
b. Of time: as, — prima cum liice, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: magnd cum dolore, with great sorrow; comminicare ali-
quid cum aliqud, share something with some one ; cum malé sud, to his own hurt ;
confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy ; esse cum téld, to go armed; cum
silentid, in silence.
10. Dé, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from ;
ex, out of ).
a. Of place: as, —dé caelé démissus, sent down from heaven; dé navibus
désilire, to jump down from the ships.
b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of :1 as, —cdgndscit dé Clodi caede, he
learns of the murder of Clodius ; consilia dé bell, plans of war.
c. Ina partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of : as, —tinus dé plébe, one of the
people.
d. Idiomatic uses: multis dé causis, for many reasons; qua dé causa, for
which reason; dé improviso, of a sudden; dé industria, on purpose ; dé integrd,
anew; dé tertia vigilid, just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; dé ménse
Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December.
11. Ex, é, from (the midst, opposed to in), owt of, with the abla-
tive (cf. ab and dé).
a. Of place : as, —ex omnibus partibus silvae évolavérunt, they flew out from
all parts of the forest ; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time: as, — ex ed dié quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ;
ex hoc dié, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex consulatii, right after his consulship ;
ex éius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequoé, justly; ex improvisd,
unexpectedly ; ex tua ré, to your advantage ; magna ex parte, in a great degree ;
ex equo piignare, to fight on horseback ; ex fist, expedient ; 6 regiOne, opposite ;
quaerere ex aliqué, to ask of some one; ex senatis consults, according to the
decree of the senate ; ex fuga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it) ;
tinus é filiis, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).
a. Of place: as, —in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, till, until: as, —in licem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in
(erga, adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in dram configit, he fled to the altar
(on the steps, or merely to) ; in diés, from day to day; in longitidinem, length-
wise ; in latitidinem patébat, extended in width ; in haec verba itrare, to swear
to these words ; hunc in modum, in this way ; dratid in Catilinam, @ speech against
1 Of originally meant from (cf. off).
134 PARTICLES [§ 221
Catiline ; in perpetuum, forever ; in péius, for the worse ; in diem vivere, to live
from hand to mouth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, in, on, among.
In very various connections : as, — in castris, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at,
or near the camp); in mari, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore,
in season; in scribend6, while writing ; est mihi in animé, I have it in mind, I
intend ; in ancoris, at anchor; in hdc homine, in the case of this man; in dubid
esse, to be in doubt.
13. Infra, below, with the accusative.
a. Of place: as, —ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea below the town; infra
caelum, under the sky.
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as,—infra Homérum, later than Homer ;
infra trés pedés, less than three feet; infra elephantés, smaller than elephants ;
infra infimds omnis, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, between, among, with the accusative.
inter mé et Scipidnem, between myself and Scipio ; inter ds et offam, between
the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium téla, amid
the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnis primus, first of all; inter biben-
dum, while drinking ; inter sé loquuntur, they talk together.
15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally: (1) of motion (archaic): as,—ob Rémam, towards Rome
(Ennius) ; ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place
in which, before, in a few phrases: as, — ob oculds, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account,
balancing one thing against another) : as, — ob mulierem, in pay for the woman ;
ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of
(a similar mercantile idea), for : as, —ob eam causam, for that reason ; quam ob
rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why.
16. Per, through, over, withthe accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — per urbem ire, to go through the city; per mirds, over
the walls.
b. Of time: as, —per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments: as, — per hominés id6-
neds, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per mé, you (etc.) may
for all me. Hence, stat per mé, it is through my instrumentality ; so, per sé, in
and of itself.
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as, —per iocum, in jest; per
speciem, in show, ostentatiously.
17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections): as, —prae sé portare, to carry
in one’s arms ; prae sé ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, pro-
claim ostentatiously, make known.
§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 135
b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English
for): as, —prae gaudis conticuit, he was silent for joy.
c. Of comparison: as, — prae magnittidine corporum sudrum, in comparison
with their own great size.
18. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative.
a. Literally : as, — praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of) ; praeter
oculés, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, —praeter
spem, beyond hope; praeter alids, more than others; praeter paucds, with the
exception of a few.
19. Pri, in front of, with the ablative.
sedéns pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; prd populd,
in presence of the people. So pro roéstris, on [the front of] the rostra;
pro contidne, before the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: pr6d lége, in defence of the law; pro vitula,
instead of a heifer; prd centum milibus, as good as a hundred thousand; pro
rata parte, in due proportion ; pro hac vice, for this once; pr6d cdnsule, in place
of consul; pro viribus, considering his strength; prod virili parte, to the best of
one’s ability; pro tua priidentia, in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter té sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of’):
as, —propter metum, through fear.
21. Secundum,! just behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as, —ite secundum mé (Plaut.), go behind me ; secundum litus,
near the shore; secundum fiimen, along the stream (cf. secundd flimine, down
stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as,—secundum natiiram, according to nagure.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative: as, —sub montem succédere, to come close
to the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night ; sub licem, near daylight ; sub
haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Ofrest, with the ablative: as, —sub Iove, in the open air (under the heaven,
personified as Jove); sub monte, at the foot of the hill.
a. Idiomatically : sub eddem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, wnder, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry,
the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but, —subter litore (Catull.), below
the shore.
24. Super,? with the accusative or the ablative.
191d participle of sequor. 2 Comparative of sub.
136 PARTICLES [§ 221
1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon.
a. Of place: super vallum praecipitari (Iug. 58), to be hurled over the ram-
part ; super laterés coria indiicuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks ;
super terrae tumulum statui (Legg. ii. 65), to be placed on the mound of earth ;
super Numidiam (Iug. 19), beyond Numidia.
b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus.super vulnus, wound upon wound ;
super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over his wine.
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in
prose).
hac super ré, concerning this thing; super taliré, about such an affair ; lit-
terfs super tanta ré exspectare, to wait for a letter in a matter of such
importance.
a. Poetically, in other senses: ligna super focd largé reponéns (Hor. Od. i.
9. 5), piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super media (Aen. ix. 61), after
midnight.
25. Supra, on top of, above, with the accusative.
supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively : as, — supra
hane memoriam, before our remembrance; supra modrem, more than
usual; supra quod, besides.
26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the abla-
tive, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. 6).
1. With the ablative: Tauré tenus, as far as Taurus ; capuld tenus, up to the
hilt.
2. With the genitive : Cumarum tenus (Fam. viii. 1. 2), as far as Cumae.
Note 1.— Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun,
making an adverbial phrase: as, hactenus, hitherto; quatenus, so far as; dé hac ré
hactenus, so much for that (about this matter so far).
Norte 2.— Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use
with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative
(§ 397. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — trans mare currunt, they run across the sea; trans fli-
men ferre, to carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput iace,
throw over your head.
b. Of rest: as, — trans Rhénum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. Ultra, beyond (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond ; ultré eum numerum,
more than that number ; ultra fidem, incredible ; ultra modum, immod-
erate.
Norr.— Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, Insuper (see § 219).
For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 267.
—
§§ 222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 137
CONJUNCTIONS
222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf. § 219), are closely related to adverbs, and
are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as,
quod, an old accusative; dum, probably an old accusative (cf. tum, cum) ; vérd, an old
neuter ablative of vérus; nihiléminus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there.
Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be re-
ferred to their original case-forms.
223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. ‘They
are of two classes, Codrdinate and Subordinate : —
a. Coordinate, connecting coérdinate or similar constructions (see § 278.
2.a). These are: —
1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought
as well as of words: as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor.
2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought:
es, sed, but.
3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for.
4. Illative, denoting an inference: as, igitur, therefore.
6. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with
that on which it depends (see § 278. 2.6). These are : —
1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, if; nisi, unless.
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac si, as if.
3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quamquam, although
(lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).
4. Temporal: as, postquam, after.
5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that.
6. Final, expressing purpose: as, ut, in order that; né, that not.
7. Causal, expressing cause: as, quia, because.
224, Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately
distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list
includes the common conjunctions * and conjunctive phrases : —
CoORDINATE
a. Copulative and Disjunctive
et, -que, atque (ac), and.
et...et;et...-que (atque); -que... et; -que. . . -que (poetical), both. . . and.
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnin), quin etiam, itidem (item), also.
cum... tum; tum... tum, both... and; not only... but also.
1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list
of Correlatives, § 152.
138 PARTICLES
qua... qua, on the one hand.. . on the other hand.
modo... modo, now... now.
aut... aut; vel... vel (-ve), either... or.
sive (seu)... sive, whether... or.
nec (neque) . . . nec (neque); neque. . . nec; nec. . . neque (rare), neither . .
et... neque, both... and not.
nec... et; nec (neque). . . -que, neither (both not)... and.
db. Adversative
sed, autem, vérum, vérd, at, atqui, but.
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, vérum tamen, but yet, nevertheless.
nihiléminus, none the less.
at vér6, but in truth; enimvéro, for in truth.
céterum, on the other hand, but.
c. Causal
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.
quapropter, quaré, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence.
d. Illative
ergo, igitur, itaque, ided, idcircd, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly.
SUBORDINATE
a. Conditional
si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided.
dummodo né (dum né, modo né), provided only not.
b. Comparative
[§ 224
- nor.
ut, uti, sicut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut si, ac si, velut, veluti, velut si, as if.
quam, atque (ac), as, than.
c. Concessive
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although.
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, quantumlibet, however much.
licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom), though, suppose, whereas.
d. Temporal
cum (quom), quand6, when; ubi, ut, when, as; cum primum, ut primum, ubi primum,
simul, simul ac, simul atque, as soun as; postquam (posteaquam), after.
prius ... quam, ante... quam, before; ndn ante... quam, not... until.
dum, fiisque dum, diénec, quoad, until, as long as, while.
§§ 224-226] INTERJECTIONS 139
e. Consecutive and Final
ut (uti), quo, so that, in order that.
né, ut né, lest (that. . . not, in order that not) ; néve (neu), that not, nor.
quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent), that not.
f. Causal
quia, quod, quoniam ({quom-iam), quando, because.
cum (quom), since.
quanddquidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as.
propterea . . . quod, for this reason . . . that.
On the use of Conjunctions, see §§ 323, 324.
INTERJECTIONS
225, Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are
derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for eme,
take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in herclé, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many
Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc.
226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in
common use : —
6, én, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).
id, Evae, Evoe, euhoe (Of joy).
heu, €heu, vae, alas (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling) ; st, hist.
éia, euge (of praise).
pro (of attestation): as, pro pudor, shame!
140 FORMATION OF WORDS [$§ 227-230
FORMATION OF WORDS
227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of
the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of
inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant
elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent,
and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph,
seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of unin-
flected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words
were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which
were neither, because they were in fact both; for the distinction between noun-stems
and verb-stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words
which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other
words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation
were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose.
Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjec-
tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused,
so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned
to verbs, 1nd others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use,
and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of
which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva-
tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which
no proper Primitive ever existed.
ROOTS AND STEMS
228. Roots! are of two kinds : —
1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain
particles derived from pronominal roots.
229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them.
They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-
stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
Norr.— Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were
treated as distinct.
230. Words are formed by inflection: (1) from roots inflected
as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232).
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25.
§§ 231-233] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141
231. A root used as a stem may appear —
a. With a short vowel: as, duc-is (dux), Duc; nec-is (nex); i-s,i-d. So
in verbs: as, es-t, fer-t (cf. § 174. 2).
b. With a long vowel?: as, liic-is (liix), LUC; pac-is (pax). So in verbs:
dic-d, is for feis, from e6, ire; fatur from fari.
ec. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs: as,
gi-gnd (root GEN), si-std (root sTA).
DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES
232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems
by means of suffixes. These are: —
1. Primary: added to the root, or (in Jater times by analogy) to verb-
stems.
2. Secondary: added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal
roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
Norte 1.— The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig-
inal (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes
once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary.
Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234. IT. 12) primary, as
in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but
in pudicus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or
apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary
suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable ; -some is prop-
erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle-
some, venturesome.
Norte 2.—It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the
derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.
Primary Suffixes
233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by
means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For —
1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish,
meaning nothing more than Jone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed
which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus, —
1 The difference in yowel-quantity in the same root (as Duc) depends on inherited
variations (see § 17. a).
142 FORMATION OF WORDS [$§ 233, 234
A word like méns, mentis, by the suffix dn- (nom. -6), gave mentid, and this,
being divided into men + tid, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tid:
as, léga-tid, embassy.
A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like
auditor-ius, of which the neuter (auditérium) is used to denote the place where
the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. -térium), x., becomes a
regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is
made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.
234, Examples of primary stem-suffixes are : —
I. Vowel suffixes : —
1. o- (m., N.), 4- (¥.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen-
sions: as, sonus, lidus, vagus, toga (root TE@).
2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in ripés, or lost, as in
scobs (scobis, root scp).
8. u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for tsuad-
vis, instead of tsua-dus, cf. 75vs), ten-uis (root TEN in tendd), and remaining alone
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root aK, sharp, in acer, aciés,
wkts), pecii, geni.
II. Suffixes with a consonant: —
1. to- (m., N.), ta- (F.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as téctus,
téctum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in podtus, pransus; and found in a
few words not recognized as participles, as pitus (cf. pirus), altus (ald).
2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars,
méns. But in many the i is lost.
8. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
actus, lictus.
4, no- (M., N.), na- (¥.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in
Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns,
as magnus, plénus, régnum.
5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, ségnis.
6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, corni.
7. mo- (ma-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma.
8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in
equus (equos), arvum, cOnspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus).
9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, pléri-que (cf.
plénus, plétus).
10. lo- (14-), as in caelum (for tcaed-lum), ¢hisel, exemplum, sella (for tsedla).
11. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making
adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius, audacia, Florentia, perniciés.
12. ko- (k4-), sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. zaipos), locus (for stlocus).
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem:
aS, apex, cortex, loquax.
§§ 234-236] DERIVATION OF NOUNS 148
13. en- (on-, én-, dn-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergd, compago
(-inis), gerd (-dnis).
14, men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen,
flimen, fulmen.
15. ter- (tor-, tér-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector),
frater (i.e. supporter), orator. ;
16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (cLAUD), milctrum (MULG).
17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus
(generis), tempus (see § 15.4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of
this stem (-er-e for t-es-i).
18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legéns, with some
adjectives from roots unknown: as, frequéns, recéns.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European
parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the
Latin.
Significant Endings
235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the
form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called
Significant Endings.
They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (in-
cluding Names of Actions); (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
Norer.— There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nouns (§ 20. b. N. 2).
DERIVATION OF NOUNS
Nouns of Agency
236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an
action. But theyinclude many words in which the idea of agency
has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
a. Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots
or verb-stems by means of the suffixes —
-tor (-sor), M.; -trix, F.
can-tor, can-trix, singer ; can-ere (root can), to sing.
vic-tor, vic-trix, conqueror (victorious); vinc-ere (vic), to conquer.
ton-sor (for ttond-tor), tdns-trix (for
ttond-trix), hair-cutter ; tond-ére (ToND as root), to shear.
peti-tor, candidate ; pet-ére (PET; peti- as stem), to seek.
144 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 236-238
By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems
of lost verbs: as, via-tor, traveller, from via, way (but ef. the verb invi6).
Nore 1.— The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine
ending -tum (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending.
The stem-ending is tor- (§ 254, II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative.
Note 2.— The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine,
except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tOnstrix). ‘
b. t-, M. or ¥F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis; stem
it-, et-) descriptive of a character : —
prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root sra, stare, stand), guardian.
teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat.
pedes, -itis (pés, ped-is, foot, and 1, root of ire, go), foot-soldier.
c. -6 (genitive ~Gnis, stem 6n-), M., added to verb-stems! indicates a person
employed in some specific art or trade : —
com-bibé (B1B as root in bibé, bibere, drink), a pot-companion.
gerd, -Onis (Ges in gerd, gerere, carry), a carrier.
Nors. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal
characteristics (cf. § 255).
Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns
237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina-
tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with con-
crete nouns denoting means and instrument.
They are also used to express the conerete result of an action
(as often in English).
Thus legis is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body
of soldiers collected) ; cf. levy in English.
238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from
roots and verb-stems by means of the endings —
a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots —
Nom. -or, M. -6s, F. -us, N.
GEN. -G6ris -is -eris or -oris
Stem O6r-(earlierGs-) i- er- (earlier &/,s-)
tim-or, fear ; timére, to fear.
am-or, love ; amare, to love.
séd-és, seat ; sedére, to sit.
caed-és, slaughter ; caedere, to kill.
genus, birth, race ; GEN, to be born (root of gignd, bear).
1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.
§§ 238, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145
Notr.— Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots:
as facinus from a supposed root FACIN.
b. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems —
Nom. -i6, F. -tid (-sid), Fr. -tiira (-siira), F. = -tus, M.
Gen. -idnis -tidnis (-sidnis) -tiirae (-siirae) -tiis (-siis)
Stem i6n- tidn- (sidn-) tira- (stira-) tu- (su-)
leg-id, a collecting (levy), a legion; legere, to collect.
reg-id, a direction, a region ; regere, to direct.
voca-tid, a calling ; vocare, to call.
mOli-tid, a toiling ; mOliri, to toil.
scrip-tira, a writing ; scribere, to write.
sén-sus (for jsent-tus), feeling ; sentire, to feel.
Note 1.—-ti6, -tiira, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the
same phonetic change (cf. § 236. a. N. 1). Hence they are conveniently associated with
the supine stem (see $178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond-
ing verb in use: as, senatus, senate (cf. senex); mentid, mention (cf. méns) ; fétiira, off-
spring (cf. fétus); litteratira, literature (cf. litterae) ; cOnsulatus, consulship (cf. consul).
Note 2.— Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 3.) ; -id isa com-
pound formed by adding 6n- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i): as, dicid (cf.
-dicus and dicis) ; -tid is a compound formed by adding 6n- to stems in ti-: as, gradatid
(cf. gradatim) ; -tira is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-: as,
natira from natus; statira from status (cf. figura, of like meaning, from a simple u-
stem, ffigu-s; and matirus, Matita).
239. Nouns denoting acts, or means and results of acts, are
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes —
-men, N.; -mentum, N.; -mOonium, N.; -m6Gnia, F.
ag-men, line of march, band ; AG, root of agere, to lead.
oot age me } regi- (rege-), stem of regere, to direct.
certa-men, contest, battle ; certa-, stem of certare, to contend.
So colu-men, pillar ; mod-men, movement ; nd-men, name; flii-men, stream.
testi-minium, testimony ; testari, to witness.
queri-monia, complaint ; queri, to complain.
-monium and -mGnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other
nouns and from adjectives: as, sancti-minia, sanctity (sanctus, holy); matri-
monium, marriage (mater, mother).
Norte. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. § 234. II. 14) ; -mentum is a compound
of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men: as,
momen, movement (Lycr.); modmentum (later), So elementum is a development from
L-M-N-a, l-m-n’s (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns
in -men, -m6nium and -monia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed
from mon- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-, Thus almus
146 FORMATION OF WORDS [S§ 289, 241
(stem almo-), fostering; Almén, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last
was formed directly from alé when -moénia had become established as a supposed
primary suffix.
240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots
and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter
suffixes —
-bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum
pa-bulum, fodder ; pascere, to feed.
sta-bulum, s/all ; stare, to stand.
vehi-culum, wagon ; vehere, to carry.
candéla-brum, candlestick ; candéla, candle (a secondary formation).
sepul-crum, tomb ; sepelire, to bury.
claus-trum ({claud-trum), bar ; claudere, to shut.
ara-trum, plough; arare, to plough.
Notr. —-trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§ 234. IT. 15), with the
stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related; -culum is the same
as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.
a. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns
and adjectives : —
fa-bula, tale ; fari, to speak.
ridi-culus, laughable ; ridére, to laugh.
fa-ber, smith ; facere, to make.
late-bra, hiding-place ; latére, to hide.
tere-bra, auger ; terere, to bore.
mulc-tra, milk-pail ; mulgére, to milk.
241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from
noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf-
fixes —
-ia (-iés), -tia (-tiés), -tas, -tiis, -tiid6
audac-ia, boldness ; audax, bold.
pauper-iés, poverty ; pauper, poor.
tristi-tia, sadness ; tristis, sad.
ségni-tiés, laziness ; ségnis, lazy.
boni-tas, goodness ; bonus, good.
senec-tis, age; senex, old.
magni-tids, greatness ; magnus, grect.
1. Instems ending in o- or 4- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia)
and appears as i before -tas, -tiis, -tia (as in boni-tas, above).
2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tas: as, loquax (stem loquac-),
loquaci-tas; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old adjectives in -es), tiber-tas,
volup-tas. oafteriis changed toe: as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas; socius, socie-tas,
§ 241] NEUTER ABSTRACTS 147
a. In like manner -d6 and -gé (r.) form abstract nouns, but are asso-
ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems : —
cupi-dé, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupi-).
dulcé-d6, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulcé-, cf. dulcé-scé.
lumba-g6, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from tlumbé, -are.
Norte. — Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by
adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix: as, militia, from miles (stem milit-); molestia
from molestus; clémentia from cléméns; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avari-tia. -tas
is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense:
as, senecta from senex; s€men-tis from sémen. -tis is tii-+ti-, cf. serviti-dd. -d6 and
-g0 appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but -d6 is
do-+6n-: as, cupidus, cupidd; gravidus, gravédd (cf. gravé-scd) ; albidus, albéd6 (cf. al-
béscd) ; formidus, hot, formidd (cf. formiduldsus), (hot flash?) fear; -g6 is possibly co-+
on-; cf. vorax, voragd, but cf. Cethégus. -tidd is compounded of -d6 with tu-stems,
which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. voliimen, from
volv6): as, cOnsuétii-do, valéti-do, habiti-do, solliciti-d6; whence servitiids (cf. servitis,
-titis).
b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices
and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by
means of the suffixes —
-ium, -tium
hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn ;1 hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest.
collég-ium, colleagueship, a college ; colléga, a colleague.
auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen; auspex (gen. auspic-is), @ soothsayer.
gaud-ium, joy ; gaudére, to rejoice.
effug-ium, escape ; effugere, to escape.
benefic-ium, a kindness ; benefacere, to benefit ; ef. beneficus.
désider-ium, longing ; désiderare, to miss, from }dé-sidés, out
of place, of missing soldiers.
adverb-ium, adverb ; ad verbum, [added] fo a verb.
interlin-ium, time of new moon; inter lindas, between moons.
régifug-ium, flight of the kings ; régis fuga, flight of a king.
servi-tium, slavery, the slave class ; servus, @ slave.
Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium : as, collég-ium, from colléga.
Nors. —-ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary
suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary. -tium is formed like -tia, by add-
ing -ium to stems with t: as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf. exitus, equités) ; so, by analogy,
calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus).
ec. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the
suffixes —
1 The abstract meaning is put first.
148 FORMATION OF WORDS [$§ 241-248
-nia, F.; -nium, -lium, -cinium, N.
pecii-nia, money (chattels) ; pecii, cattle.
contici-nium, the hush of night ; conticéscere, to become still.
auxi-lium, jelp ; augére, to increase.
latré-cinium, robbery ; latré, robber (cf. latrocinor, rob, im-
plying an adjective flatrécinus).
For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244,
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are
either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots
or verb-stems).
Nominal Adjectives
243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen-
der, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes —
-ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -culus, -ellus, -illus
riv-ulus, a streamlet ; rivus, a brook.
gladi-olus, a small sword ; gladius, a sword.
fili-olus, a little son ; filius, @ son.
fili-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter.
atri-olum, a little hall ; atrium, a hail.
homun-culus, a dwarf ; homd, @ man.
auri-cula, a little ear ; auris, an ear.
‘minus-culum, a little gift ; minus, N., a gift.
cddic-illi, writing-tablets ; codex, a block.
mis-ellus, rather wretched ; miser, wretched.
lib-ellus, a little book ; liber, a book.
aure-olus (-a, -um), golden ; aureus (-a, -um), golden.
pary-olus (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -um), little.
maius-culus, somewhat larger ; maior (old maids), greater.
Nore 1. — These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems.
The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became set-
tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the
diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish.
-culus comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s-: as,
iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculéius), pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the
termination, and the whole ending (-culus) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s-
stems, in accordance with its origin.
Nors 2.— Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as,
déliciolae, little pet ; muliereula, a poor (weak) woman; Graeculus, a miserable Greek.
§§ 243-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149
a. -cid, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used
with masculines only: as, homun-cid, a dwarf (from hom6, a man).
244, Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed
by adding to proper names the suffixes —
-adés, -idés, -idés, -eus, M.; -as, -is, -Gis, F.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns
in Latin : —
Atlas: Atlanti-adés, Mercury ; Atlant-idés (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads.
Scipid: Scipi-adés, son of Scipio.
Tyndareus: Tyndar-idés, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus; Tyndar-is,
Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.
Anchisés: Anchisi-adés, 4neas, son of Anchises.
_ Théseus: Thés-idés, son of Theseus.
Tydeus: Tyd-idés, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.
ileus: Aiax Oil-eus, son of Oileus.
Cisseus: Cissé-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus.
Thaumas: Thaumant-ias, Iris, daughter of Thaumas.
Hesperus: Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus,
the Hesperides.
245. Adjectives meaning full of, prone to, are sormiod from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-Osus, -léns, -lentus
fluctu-dsus, billowy ; fluctus, a billow.
form-dsus, beautiful ; forma, beauty.
pericul-dsus, dangerous ; periculum, danger.
pesti-léns, pesti-lentus, pestilent ; pestis, pest.
vino-lentus, vin-dsus, given to drink ; vinum, wine.
246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns
by means of the regular participial endings —
-tus, -atus, -itus, -titus
fiines-tus, deadly ; fiinus (st. fiiner-, older fiin®/,s-), death.
hones-tus, honorable ; honor, honor.
faus-tus (for tfaves-tus), favorable; favor, favor.
barb-atus, bearded ; barba, a beard.
turr-itus, turreted ; turris, a tower.
corn-iitus, horned ; corni, a horn.
Nore. — -Atus, -itus, -iitus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added
directly to nouns without any such reference,
150 FORMATION OF WORDS [$§ 247-249
247, Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in gen-
eral made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-eus, -ius, -Aceus, -icius, -Aneus (-neus), -ticus
aur-eus, golden ; aurum, gold.
patr-ius, paternal ; pater, a father.
ux6r-ius, uxorious ; uxor, @ wife.
tos-aceus, of roses ;
later-icius, of brick ;
praesent-aneus, operating instantly ;
extr-dneus, external ;
subterr-dneus, subterranean ;
salig-neus, of willow ;
vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight) ;
domes-ticus, of the house, domestic ;
silva-ticus, sylvan ;
Nors. —-ius is originally primitive (§ 234. II. 11) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -evos,
-eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, § 234. II. 11); -icius and -Aceus are formed by add-
ing -ius and -eus to stems in i-c-, 4-c- (suffix ko-, § 234. II. 12); -neus is no-+-eus
(§ 234. II. 4) ; -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems; -ticus is a formation with
-cus (cf. hosti-cus with silva-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial
stems in to- (nominative -tus).
248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-alis, -aris, -élis, -ilis, -ilis
rosa, @ rose.
later, a brick.
praeséns, present.
extra, without.
sub terra, underground.
salix, willow.
volare, to fly.
domus, a house.
silva, a wood.
natir-dlis, natural ;
popul-aris, fellow-countryman ;
patru-élis, cousin ;
natira, nature.
populus, a people.
patruus, uncle.
host-ilis, hostile ;
cur-ilis, curule ;
Nore. — The suffixes arise from adding-lis (stem li-) to various vowel stems. The
long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf. vita-lis, from
vita-, with rég-alis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprilis (aperire), ediilis
(edere), with senilis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations
-aris arises by differentiation for -dlis in words containing an 1 (as milit-aris).
249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by
means of the suffixes —
hostis, an enemy.
currus, @ chariot.
-Anus, -énus, -Inus; -as, -6nsis ; -cus, -acus (-Acus), -icus; -eus,
-éius, -icius
1. So from common nouns : —
mont-anus, of the mountains ;
veter-anus, veteran ;
antelic-anus, before daylight ;
mons (stem monti-), mountain.
vetus (stem veter-), old.
ante licem, before light.
§§ 249, 250] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 151
terr-énus, earthly ; terra, earth.
ser-énus, calm (of evening stillness) ; sérus, late.
coll-inus, of a@ hill ; collis, hill.
div-inus, divine ; divus, god.
libert-inus, of the class of freedmen ; libertus, one’s freedman.
cii-as, of what country ? quis, who ?
infim-as, of the lowest rank ; infimus, lowest.
for-énsis, of a market-place, or the Forum; forum, a market-place.
civi-cus, civic, of a citizen ; civis, a citizen.
fullon-icus, of a fuller ; fulld, a fuller.
mer-acus, pure ; merum, pure wine.
fémin-eus, of a woman, feminine ; fémina, a woman.
lact-eus, milky ; lac, milk (stem lacti-).
pléb-éius, of the commons, plebeian ; plébés, the commons.
patr-icius, patrician ; pater, father.
2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from :
Rom-anus, Roman ; Roma, Rome.
Sull-ani, Sulla’s veterans ; Sulla.
Cyzic-éni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus ; Cyzicus.
Ligur-inus, of Liguria ; Liguria.
Arpin-as, of Arpinum ; Arpinum.
Sicili-énsis, Sicilian ; Sicilia, Sicily,
Ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form) ; Ilium, Troy.
Platon-icus, Platonic ; Plato.
Aquil-éius, a Roman name;
Aquil-éia, a town in Italy ; Aqutie,
a. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become
nouns ; —
Silv-anus, m., a god of the woods ; silva, a@ wood.
membr-ana, F., skin; membrum, limb.
Aemili-anus, m., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (géns).
lani-éna, F., a@ butcher’s stall ; lanius, butcher.
Aufidi-énus, M., a Roman name ; {Aufidius (Aufidus).
inquil-inus, m., a lodger ; incola, an inhabitant.
Caec-ina, used as m., a Roman name; caecus, blind.
ru-ina, F., a fall : rud, fall (no noun existing).
doctr-ina, r., learning ; doctor, teacher.
Nore. — Of these terminations, -anus, -énus, -inus are compounded from -nus added
to a stem-vowel: as, arca, arcdnus; collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a con-
fusion with yerb-stems (as in plé-nus, fini-tus, tribii-tus), and from the noun-stem in 4-:
as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in 6- and
i-: as, colonus (cold, cf. incola), patrénus (cf. patro, -are), tribunus (cf. tribud, tribus),
Portiinus (cf. portus), Vaciina (cf. vacd, vacuus).
250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to
(especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes —
152 FORMATION OF WORDS [$$ 250, 251
-ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)
palis-ter, of the marshes ; palis, a marsh.
pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman.
sémés-tris, lasting six months ; sex ménsés, six months.
silv-ester, silv-estris, woody ; silva, a wood.
fini-timus, neighboring, on the borders ; finis, an end.
mari-timus, of the sea ; mare, Sed.
vér-nus, vernal ; vér, spring.
hodi-ernus, of to-day ; : hodié, to-day.
di-urnus, daily ; diés, day.
hes-ternus, of yesterday ; heri (old hesi), yesterday.
dii-turnus, lasting ; dia, Jong (in time).
Norr. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234. IT. 16) to stems in
’ t-ord-. Thus {pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy. -nus is an
inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-stems:
as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodié). By an extension
of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like
paternus and nocturnus. ;
a. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-Arius, -t6rius (-s6rius)
6rdin-arius, regular ; ord6, rank, order.
argent-arius, of silver or money; argentum, silver.
exttr-arius, stranger ; . extra, outside.
meri-torius, profitable ; meritus, earned.
dévor-sorius, of an-inn (cf. § 254. 5); dévorsus, turned aside.
Nore 1.— Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -aris and -or: as, pecii-
lidrius (from peciliaris), bellatorius (from bellator).
Note 2.— These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254).
Verbal Adjectives
251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality
or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the
suffixes —
-Ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -ivus, -tivus)
-Ax denotes a faulty or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener passive.
piign-ax, pugnacious ; pignare, to fight.
aud-ax, bold ; audére, to dare.
cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire.
bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink.
proter-vus, violent, wanton ; proterere, to trample.
§§ 261-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 153
noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious ; nocére, to do harm.
recid-ivus, restored ; recidere, to fall back.
cap-tivus, captive; M., a prisoner of war ; capere, to take.
Nore. — Of these, -ax is a reduction of -dcus (stem-yowel 4-+-cus), become inde-
pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -€x, -0x, -ix, and -ix are found
or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, M., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from
seni-s) ; ferox, fierce (from ferus) ; atrox, savage (from ater, black) ; celéx, ¥., a yacht
(ef. celld) ; flix, happy, originally fertile (cf. £10, suck ); fiducia, ¥., confidence (as
from {fidix) ; cf. also victrix (from victor). So mandiicus, chewing (from mando).
5 -idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb) ; tumidus,
swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum,
tough flesh); micidus, slimy (cf. mucus, slime); tabidus, wasting (cf. tabés, wasting
disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.
-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf. aemulus,
rivalling (cf. imitor and imago); sédulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, home-
staying, and séd6, set, setile, hence calm); pendulus, hanging (cf. pondd, ablative, in
weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition); stragulus, covering (cf.
strigés) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred).
-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234. IT. 8), but -ivus and -tivus have become
secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of swmmer (from aestus, heat) ;
tempestivus, timely (from tempus); cf. domes-ticus (from domus),
252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally
active, are formed by means of the suffixes —
-ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis)
frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (rraG), to break.
no-bilis, well known, famous ; noscere (GNO), to know.
exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. 6-greg-ius) ; eximere, to take out, select.
ag-ilis, active ; agere, to drive.
hab-ilis, handy ; habére, to hold.
al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish.
Nore. — Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf. § 241. }.N.). -ilis
is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf. duos, ouaXos,
English same) ; -bilis is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. N.) ; in -tilis
and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fossilis, dug up
(from fossus, dug); volatilis, winged (from volatus, flight).
253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are
formed with the suffixes —
-ndus, -bundus, -cundus
a. -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex-
ive adjectives : —
secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable; sequi, to follow.
rotu-ndus, round (whirling) 1 ; rotare, to whirl.
1 Cf. volvendis ménsibus (Aen. i. 269), in the revolving months; cf. oriundi ab Sabinis
(Liy. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi=orti,
154 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 258, 254
b. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed
by the verb : —
vita-bundus, avoiding ; vitare, to shun.
treme-bundus, trembling ; tremere, to tremble.
mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death ; moriri, to die.
fa-cundus, eloquent ; fari, to speak.
fé-cundus, fruitful ;. root Fz, nourish.
ira-cundus, irascible ; cf. irasci, to be angry.
Norr. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red
bush; rubidus (but no frubicus), ruddy; Rubicdn, Red River (cf. Minid, a river of
Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus).
So turba, commotion; turbd, a top; turbidus, roily, etc. Cf. apexabd, longabd, gravédé,
dulcédo.
c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek
-pevos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is
still discernible : —1
fé-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root FE, nourish.
alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling ; alere, to nourish.
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes
254, Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men-
tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regu-
larly used in particular senses : —
1. -drius, person employed about anything : —
argent-arius, M., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.
Corinthi-arius, m., worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus),
from (aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze.
centon-arius, M., ragman, from centd, patchwork.
2. -aria, thing connected with something : —
argent-aria, F., bank, from argentum, silver.
arén-ariae, F. plural, sandpits, from aréna, sand.
Asin-aria, r., name of a play, from asinus, ass.?
3. -Grium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning): —
aer-arium, n., treasury, from aes, copper.
tepid-4rium, n., warm bath, from tepidus, warm.
siid-arium, n., @ towel, cf. siidd, -are, sweat.
sal-arium, n., salt money, salary, from sal, salt.
calend-arium, n., @ note-book, from calendae, calends.
1 Cf. § 163. footnote 1.
2 Probably an adjective with fabula, play, understood.
§ 254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 155
4, -toria (-sdria): —
Agita-toria, r., a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitator.
vor-soria, F., a tack (nautical), from vorsus, a turn.
5. -torium (-sdrium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) :
dévor-sodrium, N., an inn, as from dévorti, turn aside.
audi-torium, N., a lecture-room, as from audid, hear.
ten-térium, n., @ tent, as from tend, stretch.
téc-torium, n., plaster, as from teg6, téctus, cover.
por-torium, Nn., toll, cf. porté, carry, and portus, harbor.
6. -ile, animal-stall : —
boy-ile, n., cattle-stall, from bis, bivis, ox, cow.
ov-ile, n., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep.
7. -al for -adle, thing connected with the primitive : —
capit-al, n., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.
penetr-ale (especially in plural), n., inner apartment, cf. penetré, enter.
Saturn-dlia, n. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat-
urn, from Saturnus.
8, -étum, N. (cf. -atus, -fitus, see § 246. N.), -tum, place of a thing, especially
with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow : —
querc-étum, n., oak grove, from quercus, oak.
oliv-étum, n., olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree.
salic-tum, n., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.
Argil-étum, n., The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.
9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -icus, in any one of the gen-
ders, with various meanings : —
vili-cus, M., a@ steward, vili-ca, F., a stewardess, from villa, farm-house.
fabr-ica, r., a workshop, from faber, workman.
am-icus, M., am-ica, F., friend, cf. amare, to love.
bibul-cus, m., ox-tender, from bib-ulus, diminutive, cf. bis, oz.
cant-icum, n., song, from cantus, act of singing.
rubr-ica, r., red paint, from ruber, red.
‘10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : —
aly-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly.
capr-ea, F., @ wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
flamm-eum, n., @ bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.
11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester : —
eques-ter, m., knight, for tequet-ter.
sequ-ester, m., @ stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.
ole-aster, m., wild olive, from olea, an olive tree.
156 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 255-259
IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES
255. The suffix -d (genitive -dnis, stem dn-), usually added to
verb-stems (see § 236. ¢), is sometimes used with noun-stems to
form nouns denoting possessed of. ‘These were originally adjec-
tives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as
proper names : —
epulae, a feast; epul-o, a feaster.
nasus, @ nose; nas-6, with a large nose (also as a proper name).
volus (in bene-volus), wishing ; vol-dnés (plural), volunteers.
frons, forehead ; front-6, big-head (also as a proper name).
ciria, a curia; ciiri-d, head of a curia (also as a proper name).
restis, a@ rope; resti-d, a rope-maker.
a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used
in their compound form : —
ad-verb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening
tadverbus.
1ati-fund-ium, large estate; latus, wide, fundus, estate, but without the inter-
\ vening {latifundus.
su-ove-taur-ilia, a@ sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull; sis, swine, ovis,
sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin,
though such formations are common in Sanskrit. :
DERIVATION OF VERBS
256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.
1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin
as a separate language.
257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes: —-
1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.
Denominative Verbs
258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of
noun-stem and adjective-stem.
259. 1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly
from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga,
flight ; fugare, put to flight.
- -§§ 259-261] DENOMINATIVE VERBS 157
2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-
stems, changing the o- into 4-. ‘These are more commonly tran-
sitive: —
stimulé, -are, to incite, from stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-).
aequé, -are, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).
hibernd, -are, to pass the winter, from hibernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-).
albd, -are, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).
pid, -are, to expiate, from pius, pure (stem pio-).
novo, -are, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-).
arm6, -are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
damn6, -are, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-).
3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy
from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding a to the stem: —}
vigild, -are, to watch, from vigil, awake.
exsul6, -are, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.
auspicor, -ari, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur.
pulver6, -are, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver- for pulvis-),
dust. .
aestud, -dre, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething.
lev, -are, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.
260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally in-
transitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems ; but most
are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost : —
albed, -ére, to be white, from albus (stem alb°/-), white.
caneo, -ére, to be hoary, from canus (stem can°/,-), hoary.
clared, -ére, to shine, from clarus, bright.
clauded, -ére, to be lame, from claudus, lame.
alged, -ére, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold.
261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in-u6,-uere, are formed
from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i: —
statué (for tstatu-ys), -ere, to set up, from status, position.
metud, -ere, fo fear, from metus, fear.
acud, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.
argud, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem targu-, bright (cf. dpyupos).
Notr.— Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, flué,
fluere, flow ; so-lvé (for fsé-lud, cf. \dw), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic
u: as, loquor, lociitus, speak.
1 The type of all or most of the denominative formations in §§ 259-262 was inherited,
but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.
158 FORMATION OF WORDS [$§ 262, 268
262. Many i-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are
formed from i-stems : —
milior, -iri, to toil, from mdlés (-is), mass.
finid, -ire, to bound, from finis, end.
sitid, -ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.
stabilid, -ire, to establish, from stabilis, stable.
a. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems : —
bullid, -ire, to boil, from bulla (stem bulla-), bubble.
condi6, -ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.
insanid, -ire, to rave, from insanus (stem insano-), mad.
gestid, -ire, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture.
Norr. —Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ordior, begin, cf. Ordd and
exdrdium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -i6 of the third conjuga-
tion (p. 102).
b. Some are formed with -i6 from consonant stems : —
ciistodi6, -ire, to guard, from ciistds (stem ciistéd-), guardian.
fulgurid, -ire, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.
Not. — Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in -uri6 (see § 263. 4. N.).
Verbs from Other Verbs
263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived
from other verbs have special meanings connected with their
terminations.
Nors. — These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the forma-
tions had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often
formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scd 1 to the present stem of verbs.
They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjuga-
tion. Of some there is no simple verb in existence : —
calé-scd, grow warm, from caled, be warm.
laba-sco, begin to totter, from labd, totter.
sci-sco, determine, from scid, know.
con-cupi-scd, conceive a desire for, from cupid, desire.
alé-scd, grow, from al6, feed.
So ira-scor, get angry; cf. ira-tus.
iuvené-sco, grow young ; cf. iuvenis, young man.
mité-scod, grow mild; cf. mitis, mild.
vespera-scit, it is getting late; cf. vesper, evening.
1 For -sc6d in primary formation, see § 176. b. 1.
§ 263] _VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS 159
Norte. — Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect
and supine systems of simple verbs: as, caléscd, grow warm, calui; ardéscé, blaze
forth, arsi; proficiscor, set out, profectus.
2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end
in-té or -itd (rarely -sd). They denote a forcible or repeated action, but
this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of
the First Conjugation end in -ité (not -atd).
iac-t6, hurl, from iacid, throw.
dormi-to, be sleepy, from dormid, sleep.
vol-itd, flit, from volé, fly.
vendi-to, try to sell, from véndo, sell.
quas-so, shatter, from quatid, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
a. Compound suffixes -titd, -sits, are formed with a few verbs. These
are probably derived from other Iteratives; thus, cantits may come from
cant6, iterative of cand, sing.
b. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs
of practice —ends in -ess6 (rarely -issd). These denote a certain energy or
eagerness of action rather than its repetition : —
cap-esso, lay hold on, from capié, take.
fac-esso, do (with energy), from faci, do.
pet-esso, pet-issd, seek (eagerly), from peti, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and
supine of the fourth: —
arcessO, arcessére, arcessivi, arcessitum, swmmon.
lacess6, lacessére, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke.
Nors.— The verbs in -ess6, -issd, show the same formation as levass6, impetrassere,
iidicdssit, etc. (§ 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in -illd, and denote a feeble or petty action : —
cay-illor, jest, cf. cavilla, raillery.
cant-ill6, chirp or warble, from cantd, sing.
Norr.— Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed
diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in -turié (-surid), and express longing or wish-
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in com-
mon use ;—
par-turid, be in labor, from parid, bring forth.
é-surid (for ted-turid), be hungry, from edo, eat.
_ Others are used by the dramatists.
Nore. — Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, émp-
turid, wish to buy, from émptor, buyer. Visd, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of
a different formation.
160 FORMATION OF WORDS [S$ 264, 265
COMPOUND WORDS
264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two
or more simple stems.
a. A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually dis-
appears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant.
Only the second member receives inflection.
b. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however,
often becomes attached to a verb.
265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways: —
1. The second part is simply added to the first : —
su-ove-taurilia (siis, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull
(cf. § 255. a).
septen-decim (septem, decem), seventeen.
2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb
(Determinative Compounds) :-—
lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate.
omni-poténs (omnis, poténs), omnipotent.
3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal
force (Objective Compounds) : —
agri-cola (ager, field, tcola akin to cold, cultivate), a farmer.
armi-ger (arma, arms, tger akin to gerd, carry), armor-bearer.
corni-cen (cornii, horn, tcen akin to cand, sing), horn-blower.
carni-fex (caro, flesh, tfex akin to facid, make), executioner.
a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun,
may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted : —
ali-pés (ala, wing, pés, foot), wing-footed.
magn-animus (magnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled.
an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double.
Notr.— Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some
further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.
1 The second part generally has its usual inflection; but, as this kind of composi-
tion is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection
of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lucifer, -feri; itidex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in
Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as,
animus, exanimis; ndrma, abnormis (see §73). In composition, stems regularly have
their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and 4-stems the
final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in Ali-pés (from 4la, stem 4la-); and i- is so
common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do
not properly have it: as, fldri-comus, flower-crowned (from fl0s, flor-is, and coma, hair).
§§ 266, 267] SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS 161
Syntactic Compounds
266. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not
stems — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly
compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntac-
tic Compounds. Examples are : —
a. Compounds of facid, factd, with an actual or formerly existing noun-
stem confounded with a verbal stem iné-. These are causative in force:
consué-facid, habituate (cf. cinsué-scd, become accustomed).
cale-facid, cale-factd, to heat (cf. calé-scd, grow warm).
b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb: —
bene-dicd (bene, well, dicd, speak), to bless.
satis-facid (satis, enough, facid, do), to do enough (for).
c. Many apparent compounds of stems : —
fide-iubes (fide, surety, iubed, command), to give surety.
man-suétus (manui, to the hand, suétus, accustomed), tame.
Marci-por (Marci puer), slave of Marcus.
Iuppiter ({Ia, old vocative, and pater), father Jove.
anim-advertd (animum advertd), attend to, punish.
d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns: —
pré-cinsul, proconsul (for pré consule, instead of a consul).
trium-vir, triwmvir (singular from trium virdrum).
septen-trid, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem tridnés,
the Seven Plough-Ozen).
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.
267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a
Particle to some other part of speech.
a. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the
prepositions retain their original adverbial sense : —
a, ab, AWAY: 4-mittere, to send away.
ad, TO, TOwARDS: af-ferre (ad-ferd), to bring.
ante, BEFORE: ante-ferre, to prefer; ante-cellere, to excel.
circum, AROUND: circum-minire, to fortify completely.
com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER Or FORCIBLY: cén-ferre, to bring together; col-
locare, to set firm.
dé, DOWN, UTTERLY: dé-spicere, despise ; dé-struere, destroy
é, ex, out: ef-ferre (ec-ferd), to carry forth, uplift.
in (with verbs), rn, ON, AGAINST: in-ferre, to bear against.
inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES: inter-rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, to offer; ob-venire, to meet.
sub, UNDER, UP FROM UNDER: sub-struere, to build beneath; sub-diicere, tolead up.
super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super-fluere, to overflow.
162 FORMATION OF WORDS
Nore 1.—In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their
ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trans, and govern the case of
a noun: as, transire flimen, to cross a river (see § 388. b).
Norte 2.— Short a of the root is weakened toi before one consonant, to e before
two: as, facid, cdnficid, cOnfectus; iacid, Sicid, éiectus. But long a is retained: as,
peractus.
b. VERBs are also compounded with the following inseparable particles,
which do not appear as prepositions in Latin :—
amb- (am-, an-), AROUND: amb-ire, to go about (cf. dugl, about).
dis-, di-, ASUNDER, APART: dis-cédere, to depart (cf. duo, two); di-vidére, to
divide.
por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porrd, forth).
red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-ire, to return; re-cliidere, to open (from claudé,
shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again).
séd-, sé-, APART: sé-cernd, to separate; cf. séd-itid, a going apart, secession
(e6, ire, to go).
c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the
verbs to which they correspond : —
per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugio.
tra-dux, vine-branch; cf. tra-diicd (trans-diicd).”
ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-venid.
con-iux (con-iiinx), spouse; cf. con-iung6. °
in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dicd.
prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sided.
com-bibé, boon companion; cf. com-bibd, -ére.
d. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.
1. Of these, per- (less commonly. prae-), very ; sub-, somewhat ; in-, not, are
regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives : —
per-magnus, very large. in-nocuus, harmless.
per-pauci, very few. in-imicus, unfriendly.
sub-risticus, rather clownish. in-sanus, insane.
sub-fuscus, darkish. in-finitus, boundless.
prae-longus, very long. im-pirus, impure.
Nortr. —Per and sub, in these senses, arealso prefixed to verbs: as, per-terre6, terrify ;
sub-rided, smile. In igndscd, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective
that does not occur alone : —
in-ermis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms).
im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war).
im-pinis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment).
in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tango, to touch, root Tac).
in-vitus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vi-s, thou wishest).
ae ae ee
PART SECOND—SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of lan-
guage, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms
of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that
had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical
meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of
thought. A form of words—like 6 puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy—expresses
a thought and might even be called asentence; though it does not logically declare any-
thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant
in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language, — just as to
a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say aboutit. Ata
somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary
form of proposition: asa child might say fire bright; horserun. With this began the
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no
distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. Ata
later stage forms were differentiated in function and—by various processes of com-
position which cannot be fully traced — Inflections were developed. These served to
express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts
of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the asso-
ciation of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined.
But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as
nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we
now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of
thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part
are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particu-
lar Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively
accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement,
with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two
simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination
of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one
alone. This is paratavis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sen-
tences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole
and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in con-
junctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This
is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages
of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were pro-
duced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech
you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaes6 and ignéscas were used side by
side, quaesd igndscas ; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression
in a conjunction, quaesd ut igniscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these
processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.
163
164 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§§ 269-272
THE SENTENCE
Kinds of Sentences
269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a State-
ment, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative
Sentence: as, — canis currit, the dog runs.
b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interroga-
tive Sentence: as,—canisne currit? does the dog run?
c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclama-
tory Sentence: as,—quam celeriter currit canis! how fast the dog runs /
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an
Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as,— i, curre per Alpis, go,
run across the Alps ; currat canis, let the dog run.
Subject and Predicate
270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of.
The Predicate is that which ts said of the Subject.
Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.
271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun,
or some word or group of words used as a Noun : —
equités ad Caesarem vénérunt, the cavalry came to Cesar.
himanum est errare, to err is human.
quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil.
a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of
the verb : —
sedé-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.
272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis
currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and
a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in
Caesar consul erat, Cesar was consul).
Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective,
and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).
Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and
erat the copula (see § 283).
§§ 278, 274] VERB AND OBJECT 165
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete
its sense (see § 274): as,— fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete
its sense: —
cadé, I fall (or am falling). s0l licet, the sun shines (or is shining).
Note 1.— Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished
as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the
word which completes their sense. Thus ménsam fécit, he made a table (which was
not in existence before), is distinguished from ménsam percussit, he struck a table
(which already existed).
Nore 2.—A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object
expressed: as, —arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, what? agrum suum,
his land.
_ Norr 3.— Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter
Verbs respectively.
Object
274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of
a verb is called the Direct Object.
A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb
is called the Indirect Object.
Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an Indirect
Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs
(§§ 362, 366) : —
pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son.
mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.
x
Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is nota fixed dis-
tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually
intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388. a).
a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct
object (Objective) : —
hominem vided, I see the man (Accusative).
homini servid, I serve the man (Dative, see § 367).
hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 354. a).
homine amicé itor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 410).
166 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [$§ 74-277
b. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by
an intransitive verb with a preposition :—
petit aprum, he aims at the boar.
laudem affectat, he strives after praise.
ciirat valétidinem, he takes care of his health.
meum casum doluérunt, they grieved at my misfortune.
ridet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55), he laughs at our stupidity.
275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put
in the Nominative case : —
Active: pater filium vocat, the father calls his son.
Passive: filius 4 patre vocatur, the son is called by his father.
Active: lanam et stellas vidémus, we see the moon and the stars.
Passive: lina et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
Modification
276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word,
or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause).
The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in
the same way.
a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an
appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun.
Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently,
the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter,
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs. .
Thus in the sentence puerl patrem vided, I see the boy’s father, the genitive
pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate
of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.
Thus in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest
nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the
adjective nobilis, noble (or nodbilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective
Phrase.
So in the sentence magna celeritate vénit, he came with great speed, the words
magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or
celerrimé, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase. ~
§§ 278, 279] CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 167
Clauses and Sentences
278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple
Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called
a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called
a Clause.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are
said to be Coérdinate. They are usually connected by a Codrdinate
Conjunction (§ 223. a); but this is sometimes omitted : —
divide et impera, divide and control. But, —
véni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered.
b. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying
clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called
the Main Clause.
This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either
a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. 0) or a Relative: —
dderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear.
servum misit quem sécum habébat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some-
times called Complex.
Nors. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
a. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
is called a Relative Clause : —
Mosa profiuit ex monte Vosegé, qui est in finibus Lingonum (B. G. iv. 10),
the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the
Lingones.
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sen-
tences, see § 308. f.
b. A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Tem-
poral Clause : —
cum tacent, claimant (Cat. i. 21), while they are silent, they cry aloud.
hominés aegri morb6 gravi, cum iactantur aestii febrique, si aquam gelidam
biberint, primd relevari videntur (id. i. 31), men suffering with a severe
sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold
water, seem at first to be relieved.
168 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [$§ 279-281
ec. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, ¢f (or some
equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, prim6 relevari videntur (in b, above) is a Con-
ditional Sentence, and si. . . biberint is a Conditional Clause.
d. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final
Clause : —
ed6 ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live).
_ Inisit légatds qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).
e. A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Con-
secutive Clause : —1?
tam longé aberam ut non vidérem, I was too far away to see (so far away that
I did not see).
AGREEMENT
280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required
by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.
The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes
called the Four Concords: —
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate
(§§ 281-284).
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286).
3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 305).
4, The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (§ 316).
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word
with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied
in that word.
This use is called Synesis, or cdnstriictid ad sénsum (construction
according to sense).
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same
person or thing, agrees with it in Case.
The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a
Predicate noun (§ 283).
1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and
subordinate clauses may be codrdinate with each other.
§ 282] APPOSITION 169
Apposition
282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same
part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi-
tive, and is said to be in apposition : —
externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungébat animés (Liv. ii. 39),
fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts.
[Here the appositive belongs to the subject. |
quattuor hic primum émen equoés vidi (Aen. iii. 537), I saw here four Sota
the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate. ]
litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didici, really states
something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate
Apposition). |
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word
including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition) : —
Nec P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissimi viri atque amplissimi, vim
tribiiniciam sustinére potuérunt (Clu. 95), neither Publius Popilius nor
Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could
withstand the power of the tribunes.
Gnaeus et Piblius Scipiinés, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
b. An Adjective may be used as an appositive : —
ea Sex. Rédscium inopem recépit (Rosc. Am. 27), she received Sextus Roscius
in his poverty (needy).
c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and
Number when it can : —
sequuntur natiram, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.
omnium doctrinaérum inventricés Athénds (De Or. i. 18), Athens, discoverer
of all learning.
Notes. — But such agreement is often impossible: as, — dlim truncus eram ficulnus,
inutile ignum (Hor. §. i. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.
d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427 ) is put in
the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : —
Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city.
Albae constitérunt, in urbe minita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti-
Sied town.
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 302. e.
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d.
For the construction with némen est, see § 373. a.
170 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [S§ 288-285
Predicate Noun or Adjective
283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a
noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in
the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.
The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when
so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).
Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so-
called copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named,
to appear, and the like.
284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or «
copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject : —
pacis semper auctor fui (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia vidéri potest (Marc. 31),
what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
éius mortis sedétis ultdrés (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death.
habeatur vir égregius Paulus (Cat. iv. 21), leb Paulus be regarded as an
extraordinary man.
ego patronus exstiti (Rosc. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.
dicit ndn omnis bonds esse beatis, he says that not all good men are happy.
a. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is
in the plural :—
consulés creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), Cesar and Servilius are
elected consuls.
b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a
predicate noun or adjective. Itis then called the substantive verb: —
sunt viri fortés, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf. vixére fortés ante Agamem-
nona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 25), brave men lived before Agamemnon. |
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. n.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without
the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as,
—bonus imperator, a good commander; stellae liicidae, bright stars;
verbum Graecum, a Greek word.
§§ 285, 286] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 171
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives ok
stellae licidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Scipio clarus (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be illustrious.
hominés mitis reddidit (Inv. i. 2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedia CapitOni propria traduntur (Rosc. Am. 21), three farms are
handed over to Capito as his own.
consilium cépérunt plénum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of
villany. ;
Nortr.—A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 283) ; it
may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or
the like (§ 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282. 0).
Rules of Agreement
286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree
with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case : —
vir fortis, a brave man.
illa mulier, that woman.
urbium magnarum, of great cities.
cum ducentis militibus, with two hundred soldiers.
imperator victus est, the general was beaten.
seciitae sunt tempestatés, storms followed.
Nore. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns
and to participles.
a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but
often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive) : —
Nisus et Euryalus primi (Aen. v. 294), Nisus and Huryalus first.
Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Cesar’s favor
and resources.
Nots. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is
occasionally plural (synesis, § 280. a): as, —Iuba cum Labiéno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba
and Labienus were taken.
b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (synesis, § 280. a): —
pars certare parati (Aen. v. 108), a part ready to contend.
coloniae aliquot déductae, Prisci Latini appellati (Liv. i. 3), several colonies
were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitid6 convicti sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted.
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
Nors. — A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive geni-
tive by which it is limited: as,— vélicissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin. N. H.
ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
172 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [$§ 287, 288
287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns
of different genders. In such cases, —
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun :—
multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.
vita morésque mei, my life and character.
si rés, si vir, si tempus dillum dignum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any
man, if any time was fit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the
nouns form one connected idea : —
factus est strepitus et admurmuratid (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made
(noise and murmur).
Nore. — This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317. ¢).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without
life : —
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced
him.
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter sé natiirali sunt iiincta (N.)
(id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alli-
ance. ;
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and
things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or
feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with
the nearest if that is plural : —
réx régiaque classis tina profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set
out together.
and a king are hostile.
légatds sortésque Oraculi exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and
the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a
Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289. c): —
stultitia et temeritas et inifistitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39), folly, rash-
ness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the
masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind,
the feminine women, and the neuter things : —
$§ 288, 289] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY 173
omnés, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything).
maidrés, ancestors. minorés, descendants.
Rémani, Romans. barbari, barbarians.
liberta, a freedwoman. Sabinae, the Sabine wives.
sapiéns, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend.
boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.
Nore. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this
use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289. a, c) and in words
that have become practically nouns.
a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often
modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive : —
tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqui céteri, his other relatives.
meus aequalis, a man of my own age.
éius familiaris Catilina (Har. Resp. 5), his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostri familiarissimus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend
Lepta.
b. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an
adjective, a noun must be added : —
boni, the good; omnia, everything (all things) ; but, —
potentia omnium rérum, power over everything.
ce. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular
or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is under-
stood from constant association : —
Africus [ventus], the southwest wind; lanuarius [ménsis], January; vitu-
lina [card], veal (calf’s flesh) ; fera [béstia], a wild beast ; patria [terra],
the fatherland ; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Galli); hiberna
[castra], winter quarters ; trirémis [navis], a three-banked galley, trireme ;
argentarius [faber], a silversmith; régia [domus], the palace; Latinae
[fériae], the Latin festival.
Note. — These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 288.
They include the names of winds and months (§ 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d.
289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following
special senses : —
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
abstract quality : —
rapto vivere, to live by plunder. in aridd, on dry ground.
honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est matiratd, there is need of haste. (Cf. impersonal passives, § 208. d.]
174 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES — [§§ 289-291
b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having
the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea : —
honesta, honorable deeds (in general). _— praeterita, the past (lit., bygones).
omnés fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate
noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 287. a): —
triste lupus stabulis (Ecl. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mitabile semper fémina (Aen. iv. 569), woman is ever a changing
and fickle thing.
malum mihi vidétur esse mors (Tusc. i. 9), death seems to me to be an evil.
d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate
adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause : —
istuc ipsum non esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very ‘* not to be.”
himanum est errare, to err is human.
aliud est errire Caesarem ndlle, aliud ndlle miseréri (Lig. 16), it is one thing
to be unwilling that Cesar should err, another to be unwilling that he
should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often
used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an
adverb : —
primus vénit, he was the first to come (came first).
nillus dubitd, I no way doubt.
laeti audiére, they were glad to hear.
erat Romae frequéns (Rosc. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.
sérus in caelum rededs (Hor. Od. i. 2. 45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the
forms of comparison are used as follows : —
a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of
a quality: as,— brevior, rather short ; audacior, too bold. é
b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as, — mons
_ altissimus, a very high mountain.
Nore. — The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references
to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
§§ 291-293] COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 175
c. With quam, vel, or iinus the Superlative denotes the highest pos-
sible degree : —
quam plirimi, as many as possible.
quam maximé potest (maximé quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
vir tinus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
Note 1.— A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum,
valdé, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 267. d. 1): as, —valdé malus, very bad =
pessimus ; permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
Nore 2.— A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as, — sub-
risticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very ; minimé, not at all; parum, not enough ;
non satis, not much.
Note 3.— The comparative maiérés (for maidrés nati, greater by birth) has the spe-
cial signification of ancestors; so minorés often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see § 313.6. For the construction of a substantive
after a Comparative, see §§ 406, 407; for that of a clause, see § 535. c, 571. a. For the
Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (multd etc.), see § 414.
292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjec-
tives are in the Comparative : —
longior quam latior aciés erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it was
broad (or, rather long than broad).
vérior quam gratior (id. xxii. 38), more true than agreeable.
Norr.—So also with adverbs: as,—libentius quam vérius (Mil. 78), with more
freedom than truth. .
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : —
disertus magis quam sapiéns (Att. x. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise.
clari magis quam honesti (Iug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
Norr.— A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes con-
nected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed : —
claris maidribus quam vetustis (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous than
old.
vehementius quam cauté (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting
order and succession —also medius, [céterus], reliquus — usually
designate not what object, but what part of tw, is meant : —
summus mons, the top of the hill.
in ultima plated, at the end of the place.
prior actid, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medid (B. G. i. 24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter céteram planitiem (Iug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
Norr.— A similar use is found in séra (multa) nocte, /ate at night, and thelike. But
medium viae, the middle of the way ; multum diéi, much of the day, also occur.
176 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 294, 295
PRONOUNS
294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describ-
ingit. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted
only ideas of place and direction (§ 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very
rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing,
being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not
named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have
no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the
individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for
Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be
treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows: —
Personal Pronouns (§ 295). Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333).
Demonstrative Pronouns (§ 296). Relative Pronouns (§ 303).
Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299). Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309).
Possessive Pronouns (§ 302).
Personal Pronouns
295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same con-
structions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for
distinction or emphasis : —
té vocd, I call you. But, —
quis mé vocat ? ego té voc, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.
b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -i oftenest
objectively (§ 348) : —
maior vestrum, the elder of you.
habétis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, @ part (i.e. some) of us.
Norte 1.— The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348):
as, —cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 224), fond of you ; ciistés vestrum (Cat. iii. 29), the guar-
dian of you (your guardian).
NotE 2,—“‘ One of themselves” is expressed by tinus ex suis or ipsis (rarely ex sé),
or tinus sudrum,
c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except
the reflexive sé. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Rela-
tive (§§ 296. 2, 308. f).
§§ 296, 297] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177
Demonstrative Pronouns
296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or
substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjec-
tives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives
($$ 286, 287): —
hdc proelid factd, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
eddem proelid, in the same battle.
ex eis aedificiis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This
use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is : —
Caesar et exercitus éius, Caesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar
exercitum suum dimisit, Cesar disbanded his [own] army. ]
si obsidés ab eis dentur (B. G. i. 14), if hostages should be given by them
(persons just spoken of).
hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi (id. i. 10), they (those just
mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
ille minimum propter aduléscentiam poterat (id. i. 2) he (emphatic) had
very little power, on account of his youth.
a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or
predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which
it refers (cf. § 306):—
hic locus est tinus quod perfugiant; hic portus, haec arx, haec Ara socidrum
(Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this
is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rérum caput hic erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the head of things,
this the source.
eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhiic mortalis ném6 est cdnseciitus
[for id. . . quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which
no man ever yet attained.
297. The main uses of hic, ille, iste, and is are the following: —
a. Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or
thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for “the
latter” of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing;
more rarely for “the former,” when that, though more remote on the
written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often
it refers to that which has just been mentioned.
178 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [$§ 297, 298
b. Ile is used of what is remote (in time, ete.); and is hence called
the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean “the former”; also (usually follow-
ing its noun) of what is famous or well-known ; often (especially the
neuter illud) to mean “the following.”
c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness:
often in allusion to the person addressed,— hence called the demon-
strative of the second person.
It especially refers to one’s opponent (in court, etc.), and fre-
quently implies antagonism or contempt.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially
common asa personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object,
but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a
relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui: —
vénit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litteris abs té reddidit (Att. ii. 1. 1),
your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quem, one whom.
eum consulem qui nén dubitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who will not hesitate.
e. The pronouns hic, ille, and is are used to point in either direction,
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to
be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea : —
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum vidére (Tusc. i. 52), that is in truth
a very great thing, —to see the soul.
f. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of refer-
ence, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned : —
nillam virtis aliam mercédem désiderat praeter hance laudis (Arch. 28),
virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
Norr.— But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Com-
monly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other con-
struction is preferred : —
cum ei Simdnidés artem memoriae pollicérétur: oblividnis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii.
104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, “I should prefer,”
said he, ‘‘[that] of forgetfulness.’’
Caesaris exercitus Pompéianés ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Cxsar defeated
that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
_ 298. The main uses of idem and ipse are as follows : —
a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person
or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem)
is used to indicate that person or thing : —
§ 298] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS EE ig
per tinum servum et eum ex gladiatdrid lids (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a
single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus régnum occupare cdnatus est, vel régnavit is quidem paucds
ménsis (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or
rather he actually reigned a few months.
Norte. — So rarely with ille: as, —nunc dextra ingeminans ictiis, nunc ille sinistra
~ (Aen. v. 457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left.
[In imitation of the Homeric é ye: cf. Aen. y. 3384; ix. 796.]
b. Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an
adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time) :—
dratid splendida et grandis et eadem in primis facéta (Brut. 273), an oration,
brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [haec] dicat, negat idem esse in Ded gratiam (N. D. i. 121), when he
says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
Nore. — This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun
cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
c. The intensive ipse, se/f, is used with any of the other pronouns,
with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis : —
turpe mihi ipsi vidébatur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed
disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
tum ipsum (Off. ii. 60), at that very time.
Nort 1.— The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
Nore 2.—In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he
will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would
be translated by ipse, the latter by sé or sésé.
d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows : —
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person : —
- idque rei piiblicae praeclarum, ipsis gloridsum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was
splendid for the state, glorious for themselves. ,
omnés boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id. ii. 29), all good men so far as was in
their power (in themselves).
di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Aen. viif. 484), may the gods hold in
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law’s head. -
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : —
vobiscum ipsi recordimini (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (your-
selves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons : —
ipse dixit (cf. adrés fa), he (the Master) said it.
Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Nomentanus was above [the
host] himself [at table].
180 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 298-300
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300. d).
f. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real empha-
sis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : —
mé ipse cOnsOlor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not mé ipsum, as the Eng-
lish would lead us to expect. ]
Reflexive Pronouns
299. The Reflexive Pronoun (sé), and usually its corresponding
possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject
of the sentence or clause : —
sé ex navi proiécit (B. G. iv. 25), he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorigem ad sé vocat (id. i. 20), he calls Dumnorix to him.
sésé castris tenébant (id. iii. 24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemni sé putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar suas copiads subdicit (B. G. i. 22), Caesar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhénum esse transeundum (id. iv. 16), Cesar decided that
he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
a. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding pos-
sessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used : —
morti mé obtuli (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hine té réginae ad limina perfer (Aen. i. 889), do you go (bear yourself)
hence to the queen’s threshold.
quid est quod tantis nés in laboribus exercefmus (Arch. 28), what reason is
there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils ?
singulis vébis novénds ex turmis manipulisque vestri similés éligite (Liv.
xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine
like yourselves.
300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a
double use of Reflexives. ;
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its
own clause (Direct Reflexive): —
ifidicari potest quantum habeat in sé boni cdnstantia (B. G. i. 40), it can be
determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] ndluit eum locum vacare, né Germani é suis finibus transirent
(id. i. 28), Caesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Ger-
mans would cross over from their territories.
si qua significatid virtiitis éliiceat ad quam sé similis animus adplicet et
adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar
disposition may attach itself.
§ 300] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to
that subject (Indirect Reflexive) : —
petiérunt ut sibi licéret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed
them (the petitioners).
Iccius niintium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur (id. ii. 6), Iccius sends
a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legi6 ei gratias égit, quod dé sé optimum itidicium fécisset (id. i. 41),
the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high
opinion of them.
si obsidés ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Cesar, who is the speaker) dentur, sé
(Cesar) cum eis pacem esse factiirum (id. i. 14), [Cesar said that] if
hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
Notr.— Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the
grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse:
Thus,—cum ipsi ded nihil minus gratum futiirum sit quam non omnibus patére ad sé
placandum viam (Legg. ii. 25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than
that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.
a. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought
of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is
occasionally found : —
sunt ita multi ut eds carcer capere nén possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many
that the prison cannot hold them. [Here sé could not be used ; so also
in the example following. ]
ibi in proximis villis ita bipartito fuérunt, ut Tiberis inter eds et pons inter-
esset (id. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farm-
houses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge
were between them (the divisions).
non fuit ed contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not
content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare: qui fit, Maecénas, ut némd, quam sibi sortem seu ratid dederit
seu fors obiécerit, illa contentus vivat (Hor. 8. i. 1. 1), how comes it,
Mecenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has
assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man. ]
b. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive,
either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness ; and in later writers
is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive : —
ciir dé sua virtiite aut dé ipsius diligentia déspérarent (B. G. i. 40), why
(he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ?
omnia aut ipsds aut hostés populatés (Q. C. iii. 5. 6), [they said that] either
they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive. ]
182 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [$§ 300, 301
qui sé ex his minus timidds existimari volébant, ndn sé hostem veréri, sed
angustids itineris et magnitidinem silvarum quae intercéderent inter
ipsés (the persons referred to by sé above) atque Ariovistum .. . timére
dicébant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid
said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the
vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus,
audistis niper dicere légatés ‘Tyndaritanods Mercurium qui sacris anniver-
sariis apud eds colerétur esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard
the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was
worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero
wavers between apud eds colébatur, a remark of his own, and apud sé
colerétur, the words of the ambassadors. eds does not strictly refer to
the ambassadors, but to the people—the Tyndaritani. }
301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following : —
a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the
subject of a suppressed main clause : —
Paetus omnis libris quis frater suus reliquisset mihi doénavit (Att. ii. 1),
Peitus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation)
his brother had left him.
b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause
which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse: —
Sicratem civés sui interfécérunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellow-
citizens.
qui poterat saliis sua cuiquam nén probari (Mil. 81), how can any one fail
to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the
emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice. ]
hunc si seciiti erunt sui comités (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions
Follow him.
Nore. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed:
as, — stude6 sanare sibi ipsds (Cat. ii. 17), I am anxious to cure these men for their own
benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint).
c. Suus is used for one’s own as emphatically opposed to that of
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word
in it:—
suis flammis déléte Fidénas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidene with its own fires
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.]
d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective: —
sui laus, self-praise.
habétis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditi hominés cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 5), abandoned men with
slaves like themselves.
§§ 301, 302] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 1838
e. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive
or verbal abstract used indefinitely : —
contentum suis rébus esse maximae sunt divitiae (Par. 51), the greatest
wealth is to be content with one’s own.
cui proposita sit coOnservatio sui (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
f. Inter sé (nds, vis), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is
regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation : —
inter sé cOnfligunt (Cat. i. 25), contend with each other.
inter sé continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which
take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they
belong, not those of the possessor : —
haec drnamenta sunt mea (Val. iv. 4), these are my jewels. [mea is neuter
. plural, though the speaker is a woman. ]
mei sunt drdinés, mea discriptid (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the
arrangement. [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus. ]
multa in nostro collégid praeclara (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in
our college. [nostrd is neuter singular, though men are referred to. ]
Germani suds copids castris édixérunt (B. G. i. 51), the Germans led their
troops out of the camp.
a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pro-
nouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive
pronouns (§ 343. a): —
domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei. ]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri. ]
patrimonium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.]
Norte 1. — Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For
the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348. a.
Nots 2.— The Interrogative Possessive ciius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early
Latin: as, —ciium pecus (Ecl. iii. 1), whose flock? The genitive chius is generally used
instead.
b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to,
favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of :—
[petere] ut sua clémentiad ac mansuétiidine iitadtur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked
(they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
igndranti quem portum petat niillus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), te
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tué pignasti (Liv. xxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit time?
Norsr. — This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the posses
ive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.
184 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 302, 303
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns)
when they are plainly implied in the context : —
socium fraudavit, he cheated his partner. [socium suum would be distinctive,
his partner (and not another’s) ; suumsocium, emphatic, his own partner. ]
d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are
often used substantively to denote some special class or relation : —
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
suds continébat (B. G. i. 15), he held his men in check.
flamma extréma meérum (Aen. li. 481), last flames of my countrymen.
Sullani, the veterans of Sulla’s army; Pompéiani, the partisans of Pompey.
Norr. — There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes
a noun like other adjectives (see § 288).
e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number,
and case with an implied noun or pronoun : —
mea solius causa (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostrd omnium fléti (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Anniana Milonis dom6 (Att. iv. 3. 3), out of Annius Milo’s house. [Equiva-
lent to ex Anni Milonis dom6. |
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsius régnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see §§ 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in
its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest con-
struction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corre-
sponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as, —iter in ea loca facere coepit,
quibus in locis esse Germands andiébat (B. G. iv. 7), he began to march into those
PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is com-
monly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative
clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time: —
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,—ei qui Alesiae obsidébantur
(B. G. vii. 77), those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives: as,—T. Balventius, qui superidre anno primum pilum diixerat
(id. v. 35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent
to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,—quae cum ita sint (et cum ea ita sint),
{and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinat-
ing and the later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that
the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
§§ 304-306] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 185
304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own
clause and some substantive. ‘This substantive is called the Ante-
cedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence —
eum nihil délectabat quod fas esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was
right,
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas
esset, indicating a relation between the two.
305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and
Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause
in which it stands : —
ea diés quam constituerat vénit (B. G. i. 8), that day which he had appointed
came.
pontem qui erat ad Gendyam iubet rescindi (id. i. 7), he orders the bridge
which was near Geneva to be cut down.
Aduatuci, dé quibus supra diximus, domum revertérunt (id. ii. 29), the
Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
Nore. — This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form:
as, qualis, quantus, quicumque, etc.
a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules
for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287) : —
filium et filiam, qués valdé diléxit, und tempore amisit, he lost at the same
time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grandés nati matrés et parvuli liberi, quérum utrdrumque aetas misericor-
diam nostram requirit (Verr. v. 129), aged matrons and little children,
whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
Stium atque divitiae, quae prima mortalés putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and
wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).
eae frigés et friig¢tiis qués terra gignit (N. D. ii. 37), those fruits and crops
which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see § 316. a.
306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an
appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with
an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a): —
mare etiam quem Neptiinum esse dicébas (N. D. iii. 52), the sea, too, which
you said was Neptune. [Not quod. ] . :
Thébae ipsae, quod Boedtiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which is
the chief city of Beotia. [Not quae. ]
Notes. — This rule is occasionally violated: as,—fliimen quod appellatur Tamesis
(B. G. v. 11), a river which is called the Thames.
186 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 306, 307
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by
attraction) : —
si aliquid agds edrum quorum cdnsuésti (Fam. v. 14), if you should do some-
thing of what you are used to do. [For edrum quae. |
Nore. — Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: —
urbem quam statuo vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding is yours.
Naucratem, quem convenire volui, in navi non erat (Pl. Am. 1009), Naucrates,
whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent : —
quartum genus . . . qui in vetere aere alién6 vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth
class, who are staggering under old debts.
tinus ex ed numer6 qui parati erant (Iug. 35), one of the number [of those]
who were ready.
conitiravére pauci, dé qua [i.e. conidiratidne] dicam (Sall. Cat. 18), a few
have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
Notrr.— So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as,
—nostra acta, quos tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants.
[Here qués agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses ;
but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is
wholly omitted.
a. Theantecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause : —
loci natiira erat haec quem locum nostri délégerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature
of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause,
agreeing with the relative in case : —
quas rés in cOnsulatii nostrd gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 28), he has
touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prima innocentis mihi défénsid est oblata suscépi (Sull. 92), I under-
took the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
Nore. —In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308. d) and a
demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause: —
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populd Romané intulerat, ea princeps poenas per-
solvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the
Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. vi. 653), the same pleasure
that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qui fit ut némd, quam sibi sortem ratio dederit, illa contentus vivat (cf. Hor. S. i.
1. 1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which chvice
has assigned him?
§§ 307, 308] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 187
c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite : —
qui decimae legidnis aquilam ferébat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the
eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cdgndscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
d. The phrase id quod or quae rés may be used (instead of quod
alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea : —
[obtrectatum est] Gabinid dicam anne Pompéid? an utrique — id quod est
vérius ? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered — shall I say to Gabinius
or to Pompey ? or — which is truer — to both ?
multum sunt in vénatidnibus, quae rés virés alit (B. G. iv. 1), they spend
much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
Nore. — But quod alone often occurs: as, — Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae volup-
tati fuit, hostem réiécerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Cassius — which was a great satis-
Saction to me—had driven back the enemy.
e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause,
or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause : —
firmi [amici], cfiius generis est magna péniiria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends,
a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
f. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the
antecedent may stand in the relative clause : —
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beauti-
ful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones. ]
Special Uses of the Relative
308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be
observed : —
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in Eng-
lish : —
liber quem mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.
is sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always was.
ed in locé est dé qué tibi lociitus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
b. When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative con-
junction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a
demonstrative in the last : — :
erat profectus obviam legidnibus Macedonicis quattuor, quas sibi conciliare
peciinia cdgitabat edsque ad urbem addiicere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he had
set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over
to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
188 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§ 308
c. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other
construction in English, — particularly of a participle, an appositive,
or a noun of agency : —
légés quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Cesar the conqueror of Gaul.
itista gloria qui est friictus virtiitis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit
of virtue.
ille qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).
qui legit, a reader (one who reads).
d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 307. b): —
quae pars civitatis Helvétiae insignem calamitatem populéd Romané intulerat,
ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), the portion of the Helvetian
state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the
Jirst to pay the penalty.
Nore. — In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a
redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause:
he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
e. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthet-
_ ical clause to characterize a person, like the English such : —
quae vestra priidentia est (Cael. 45), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to
pro vestra pridentia. |
audissés cémoedés vel léctdérem vel lyristén, vel, quae mea liberalitas, omnés
(Plin. Ep. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a
lyre-player, or — such is my liberality —to all of them.
f. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of
an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the
sentence or clause that precedes : —
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi conyénit (B. G. iii. 14),
Cesar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come
together, etc.
quae qui audiébant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
quorum quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), what deed of theirs like this?
qué cum vénisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
Norr. — This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrog-
ative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative,
with or without and.
g- A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent
in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead
of the formal relative pronoun : —
§§ 308-310] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 189
mortuus Ciimis qué sé contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cume, whither
he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas. ]
locus qué aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
régna unde genus diicis (Aen. v. 801), the kingdom from which you derive
your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
h. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered
simply by as in English: —
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset talis qualem té esse vided (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I
see you are.
tanta dimicatid quanta numquam fuit (Att. vii. 1. 2), such a fight as never
was before.
tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. i. 5. 47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro-
duced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, qué, unde, cum, quaré.
Indefinite Pronouns
309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some
person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites, mean-
ing some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite,
and quidam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some
one, stand between the two:—
dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean
certain persons defined to the speaker’s mind, though not named. }
habitant hic quaedam mulierés pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women
live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would
be aliquae or nescid quae].
a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quis, if
any ; nisi quis, if any... not; né quis, lest any, in order that none ;
num quis (ecquis), whether any ; and in relative clauses.
b. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often, used instead of
quis after si, nisi, né, and num, and are rather more emphatic : —
quid si hée quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had
desired this ?
nisi alicui sudrum negodtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he should employ
some one of his friends.
cavébat Pompéius omnia, né aliquid vos timérétis (Mil. 66), Pompey took
every precaution, so that you might have no fear.
190 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 811-3138
311. In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui), some one (some), is
regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one,
or illus, any, would be required : —
iiistitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. i. 50), justice never does harm to any-
body. [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it. |
non sine aliqud metii, not without some fear. But,—sine alld metii, without
any fear.
cum aliquid ndn habeas (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not.
Nore. — The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and
quisquam (illus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is
expressed or suggested : —
si quisquam, ille sapiéns fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia illa fuérunt (Rose. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.
Si quid in té peccavi (Att. iii. 15. 4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any
particular case (see § 310)].
312. Quivis or quilibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the cor-
responding adjective illus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quivis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam
and iillus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or sug-
gested : —
non cuivis hominicontingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 36), it is not every
man’s luck to go to Corinth. [nn cuiquam would mean not any man’s. |
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided it be
somebody.
si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14. 1), if aay man is timorous,
I am he.
si tempus est illum iiire hominis necandi (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion
whatever when homicide is justifiable.
Nore. — The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the
Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point .”
of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differ-
ences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and
iinus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions : —
bonus liber melior est quisque qué maior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), the larger a
good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
amb6 exercitiis suis quisque abeunt domds (Liv. ii. 7. 1), both armies go
away, every man to his home.
uterque utrique erat exercitus in cénspectii (B. G. vii. 35), each army was
_in sight of the other (each to each).
ponite ante oculds finum quemque régum (Par. i. 11), eet before your eyes each
of the kings.
§§ 313, 314] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 191
a. Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one: —
quo quisque est sollertior, hdc docet iracundius (Rosc. Com. 31), the keener-
witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
Nore. — Quisque is generally postpositive!: as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
b. Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal
numerals : —
nodbilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their
nobility).?
prim6 quéque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity.
antiquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. i. 45), the most ancient times.
_ decimus quisque (id. v. 52), one in ten.
Nore 1.— Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,— sapientissimus
quisque aequissim6 animé moritur (Cat. M. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest
equanimity.
Nore 2. — Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a dis-
paraging sense (how few) : —
quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque jtiris peritus est (Planc. 62), for how
few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!
quotus enim istud quisque fécisset (Lig. 26), for how many would have done this?
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
314. Némd, no one, is used of persons only —
1. As a substantive : —
néminem acciisat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of niillus : —
vir némo bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man.
Norr. — Even when used as a substantive, némd may take a noun in apposition.
as,—ném6 scriptor, nobody [who is] @ writer.
a. Nillus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and
ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding
cases of némé, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a
substantive : —
nillum mittitur télum (B. C. ii. 13), not a missile is thrown.
nillé hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), without opposition from the enemy. .
nillius insector calamitatem (Phil. ii. 98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nullé adiuvante (id. x. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nilli erant praeddnés (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates.
nilli eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For non ném6, non nillus (non niilli), see § 326. a.
1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause.
2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you
take it,
192 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS ~ [§ 315
Alius and Alter
315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite num-
ber); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; céteri
and reliqui, all the rest, the others ; alteruter, one of the two : —
propterea quod aliud iter habérent nillum (B. G. i. 7), because (as they
said) they had no other way.
ini epistulae respondi, venid ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have
answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class.
iécissem ipse mé potius in profundum ut céterds cOnservairem (Sest. 45), I
should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servilius cdnsul, reliquique magistratiis (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul
and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. vi. 5), since it must be that one
of the two should prevail.
Nore. — Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite
number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly : —
dum né sit té ditior alter (Hor. S.i. 1.40), so long as another is not richer than
you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).
non ut magis alter, amicus (id. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so.
a. The expressions alter... alter, the one... the other, alius...
alius, one .. . another, may be used in pairs to denote either division
of a group or reciprocity of action : —
alteri dimicant, alteri victorem timent (Fam. vi. 8), one party fights, the
other fears the victor.
alteram alteri praesidid esse iusserat (B. C. iii. 89), he had ordered each (of
the two legions) to support the other.
alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fragmentis saeptérum (Sest. 79), some make an
attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
alius ex alid causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 37), they ask each other the reason.
alius alium percontamur (Pl. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another
(the other) of the objects referred to : —
alter coOnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aliud est maledicere, aliud acciisire (Cael. 6), it is one thing to slander,
another to accuse.
e. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same
stem, expresses briefly a double statement : —
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one sich another another (another seeks
another thing).
iussit alids alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he vitersd different persons to dig in
different places.
alii alid locé resistébant (B. C. ii. 39), some halted in one place, some in another.
§§ 316, 317] VERB AND SUBJECT 193
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per-
son : —
ego status, I resolve. senatus décrévit, the senate ordered.
silent légés inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.
Nore.— In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the sub-
ject in gender and number (§ 286): —
6ratid est habita, the pleuw was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.
a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the
expressed or implied antecedent : —
adsum qui féci (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it.
tii, qui scis, omnem diligentiam adhibébis (Att. v. 2. 3), you, who know,
will use all diligence.
vidéte quam déspiciamur omnés qui sumus é minicipiis (Phil. iii. 15), see
how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
6. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb-
form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun : —
amantium irae amoris integratid est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers
are the renewal of love.
non omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. ii. 90), not every error should be
called folly.
Corinthus limen Graeciae exstinctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light
of Greece, is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
Note. — So rarely (by synesis, § 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an
ablative with cum: as,—dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liy. xxi. 60), the
general and several leading men are taken.
a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is naualieat in
the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than
the thir
si tii et Tullia valétis ego et Cicerd valémus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia
are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also
Jirst in order, not last, as by courtesy in English. ]
Nore. — In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for
predicate adjectives (see § 287. 2-4).
194 SYNTAX: VERBS [§ 317
b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§ 223. a), or if
they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular : —
quem neque fidés neque itis iirandum neque illum misericordia repressit
(Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman senate and
people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti essémus (id.
xi. 20), neither Cesar nor I should have been considered. |
fima et vita innocentis défenditur (Rosc. Am. 15), the reputation and life of an
innocent man are defended.
est in e6 virtiis et probitas et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam.
xiii. 28 a. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense
of duty, and the greatest devotion.
Note. — So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
c. Whena verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often
agrees with one and is understood with the others : —
intercédit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribini plébis (B. C. i. 2), Mark Antony
and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
hoc mihi et Peripatétici et vetus Académia concédit (Acad. ii. 113), this both
the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but
the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are
thought of (§ 280. a): —
(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2), the senate is aware of this.
ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plébés 4 patribus sécessit (Sall. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praedas agébant (Iug. 32), a part brought in booty.
cum tanta multitidd lapidés conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd were
throwing stones.
Nore 1.— The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,—equita-
tum omnem .. . quem habébat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), he sent ahead all
the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
Note 2.— The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes
used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery;
eques, the cavalry.
e. Quisque, each, and iinus quisque, every single one, have very often
a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a
plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a): —
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180), let every one keep his
own (let them keep every man his own).
Nors. —So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius . . . alium,
alter . . . alterum (§ 315. a).
§§ 318, 319] OMISSION OF SUBJECT OR VERB 195
Omission of Subject or Verb
318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted : —
a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless em-
phatic : —
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.
b. An indefinite subject is often omitted :—créderés, you would
have supposed ; putamus, we (people) think ; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent,
they say.
_ ¢, A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject ex-
pressed or understood (§ 208. d):—
diii atque acriter piignatum est (B. G. i. 26), they fought long and vigorously.
319. The verb is sometimes omitted : —
a. Dicd, faci, agd, and other common verbs are often omitted in
familiar phrases : — 5
quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?
ex ungue lednem [cdgnoscés], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much ?)
quid? quod, what of this, that . . .? (what shall I say of this, that. . .?)
[A form of transition. ]
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), 4olus thus [spoke] in reply.
tum Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.
di melidra [duint] ! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better
things) !
unde [venis] et qué [tendis]? (Hor. S. ii. 4. 1), where from and whither
bound? [CE. id. i. 9. 62 for the full form.]
b. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica-
tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub-
junctive : —
tii conitinx (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife.
quid erg6? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2), what then? am I
the boldest of all ?
omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contentid et comparatid dé dudbus honestis utrum
honestius (Off. i. 152), there may often occur a comparison of two
honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. ([Here, if any
copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would
be complete without any. ]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom
plished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius ?]
196 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§ 320, 321
PARTICLES
Adverbs
320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs:
as,—celeriter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name
(adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see § 241. b). They also modify adjectives,
showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendidé
mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter,
too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20. g. N.).1
321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other
Adverbs.
a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. g):—
ed [= in ea] imponit vasa (Iug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the
beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.
ed milités impdnere (B. G. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses).
apud eds qué [ = ad qués] sé contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom
(whither) he resorted.
qui eum necasset unde [ = qué] ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 71), one who should
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
6 condicidnés miserais administrandarum provincidrum ubi {= in quibus]
sevéritas periculisa est (Flacc. 87), O! wretched terms of managing the
provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
b. The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regu-
larly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives ; so occasionally
other perfect participles : —
praeclaré facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done).
multa facété dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings.
c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modi-
fied by an adverb : —
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
admodum puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum 1até régem (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide.
Nore. — Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force
but which contain a verbal idea: —
hine abitid (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cdgitem dé obviam itidne (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet
(him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]
1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 214-217,
§§ 321, 322] ADVERBS 197
d. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are
obviam, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others : —
fit obviam Clodid (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius.
[Cf. the adjective obvius : as, —si ille obvius ei futiirus non erat (id. 47),
if he was not likely to fall in with him.]
haec commemor6 quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts, which
are well-known.
alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable,
others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a
previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it. ]
eri semper lénitas (Ter. And. 175), my master’s constant (always) gentleness.
[An imitation of a Greek construction. ]
Notr.—In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an
adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in
c above).
For propius, pridié, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.
322. The following adverbs require special notice : —
a. Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : —
non verbis sdlum sed etiam vi (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words, but also by
orce.
hoe Aisin maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117), this crime too.
b. Nunc’ means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is
rarely used of the immediate past.
Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a refer-
ence to previous time through which the state of things described has
been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With nega-
tives iam means (no) longer.
Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any
time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum
(Ttum-ce, cf. nunc) : —
ut iam antead dixi, as I have already said before.
si iam satis aetatis atque rdboris habéret (Rosc. Am. 149), if he had attained
a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).
non est iam lénitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat institiitum, which had come to be a practice (had now been
established).
nunc quidem déléta est, tune fldrébat (Lael. 13), now (’t is true) she [Greece]
is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum régnabat, at the time when he reigned.
1 For jnum-ce ; cf. tunc (for {tum-ce).
198 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [$§ 822, 323
ec. Certd means certainly, certé (usually) at least, at any rate: —
certd scid, I know for a certainty ; ego certé, I at least.
d, Primum means /irst (first in order, or for the first time), and
implies a series of events or acts. Primd means at first, as opposed
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time : —
hdc primum sentié, this I hold in the first place.
aedis primé ruere rébamur, at first we thought the house was falling.
Norts. — In enumerations, primum (or prim6) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in
the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times
repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by d€nique or postrémé,
lastly, finally. Thus, —primum dé genere belli, deinde dé magnitiidine, tum dé im-
peratore déligend6 (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of
the choice of a commander.
e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive mean-
ing, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.: —
hdc quidem vidére licet (Lael. 54), rns surely one may see. [Emphatic.]
[séctritas] specié quidem blanda, sed reipse multis locis repudianda (id. 47),
(tranquillity) in appearance, ’tis true, attractive, but in reality to be
rejected for many reasons. [Concessive. ]
f. Né... quidem means not even or not... either. The emphatic
word or words must stand between né and quidem : —
sed né Iugurtha quidem quiétus erat (Iug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet
either.
ego autem né irasci possum quidem iis quis valdé amd (Att. ii. 19. 1), but I
cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
Notes. — Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the
first person. Thus, —equidem adprobabo (Fam. ii. 3. 2), J for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS !
323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar
constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood
that precedes them: —
scriptum senatui et populd (Cat. iii. 10), written to the senate and people.
ut eds [partis] sandrés et cénfirmarés (Mil. 68), that you might cure and
strengthen those parts.
neque inea pridentia neque himanis consiliis frétus (Cat. ii. 29), relying
neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
1 For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 223, 224.
§ 823] CONJUNCTIONS 199
~
a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also
commonly connect similar constructions : —
his igitur quam physicis potius crédendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you
think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?
hominem callididrem vidi néminem quam Phormidnem (Ter. Ph. 591), a
shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 407).
ut ndn omne vinum sic non omnis natiira vetustate coacéscit (Cat. M. 65),
as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in mé quasi in tyrannum (Phil. xiv. 15), against me as against a tyrant.
b. Two or more codrdinate words, phrases, or sentences are often
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, § 601. c):
omnés di, hominés, all gods and men.
summi, medii, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
itra, légés, agros, libertatem nobis reliquérunt (B. G. vii. 77), they have left
us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
ec. 1. Where there are more than two coérdinate words etc., a con-
junction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first): —
aut aere aliénd aut magnitidine tribitdrum aut iniiria potentidrum (B. G.
vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the
powerful.
at sunt morosi et anxil et iracundi et difficilés senés (Cat. M. 65), but (you
say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it): —
propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium homi-
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomi-
nation of all men.
utrumque égit graviter, auctdritate et offémsidne animi ndn acerba (Lael.
77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and
with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a
series, even when there is no grouping apparent : —
voce volti mGtiique (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.
ciram consilium vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.
quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque défenderas (Fam. i. 7. 2),
whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con
nected by a conjunction : —
multae et gravés causae, many weighty reasons.
vir liber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man.
200 SYNTAX: PARTICLES (§§ 828, 324
e. Often the same conjunction is a tsa in two coérdinate clauses:
et... et (-que. ia both... and.
ee, . aut, pithine “Ots
vel... vel, either...or. [Examples in § 324. e.]
sive (seu) . . . sive (seu), whether...or. [Examples in § 324. f.]
f. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly
or wholly losing their adverbial force : —
nunc... nunc, tum... tum, iam... iam, now... now.
modo... modo, now... now.
simul... simul, at the same time... at the same time.
qua... qua, now.. . now, both. . . and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.
simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. vi. 7. 15), he thanks him and at
the same time congratulates him.
érumpunt saepe vitia amicdrum tum in ipsds amicés tum in aliénds (Lael.
76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends
themselves, now against strangers.
qua maris qua féminas (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.
g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla-
tively as conjunctions: —
ut (rel.) .. . ita, sic (dem.), as (while) . . . so (yet).
tam (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), 80 (as)... as.
cum (rel.) ... tum (dem.), while... so also; not only. . . but also.
324. The following Conjunctions require notice : —
a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more
closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected :
cum coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wives and children.
ferré ignique, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the
combined means of devastation. ]
aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal
formula, where they are considered separately. |
b. Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied
reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so,
and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very
much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable: —
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too,
without the slightest distinction).
fisus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less
expected).
atque ego créd6, and yet I believe (for my part).
§ 824] CONJUNCTIONS 201
c. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of
comparison and likeness ; —
simul atque, as soon as.
non secus (non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if.
pro e6 ac débui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).
aequé ac til, as much as you.
haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see § 328. a.
d. Sed and the more emphatic vérum or vérd, but, are used to intro-
duce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after nega-
tives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces
with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the
others; sometimes it means atleast. At enim is almost always used
to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown.
At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often
marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force percep-
tible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and
sometimes afresh step inthereasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now tf,
is used to continue an argument.
Nors. — Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would
suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause
continuing the same thought: as,—impetum hostés ferre non potuérunt ac terga
vertérunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
e. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of vold)
and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction
is not always observed : —
sed quis ego sum aut quae est in mé facultas (Lael. 17), but who am I or
what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in
fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded. ]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won’t do that, then
let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses. ]
vita talis fuit vel fortiinad vel gloria (Lael. 12), his life was such either in
respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
si propinqués habeant imbécillidrés vel animé vel fortiina (id. 70), if they
have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example, or in both).
aut dedrum aut régum filii (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here
one case would exclude the other. ]
implicati vel fisi diiiturnd vel etiam officiis (id. 85), entangled either by
close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might
exclude the first. ]
202 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§ 824
f. Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either...
or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with
two names for the same thing : —
sive inridéns sive quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 91), either laughingly or because
he really thought so.
sive deae seu sint volucrés (Aen. iii. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are
goddesses or birds.
g- Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with
no alternative force: as, —vel minimus, the very least.
h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally
expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a
less important explanatory eirbuaiaWlnde put in by the way; etenim
(for, you see; for, you know ; for, mind you) and its negative neque
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vita) quae est sdla vita ndminanda. nam dum sumus inclisi in his
compagibus corporis, miinere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per-
fungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life)
which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by
the body’s frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy
task. For the soul is from heaven.
harum trium sententiadrum nilli prérsus adsentior. nec enim illa prima
véra est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one isn’t true.
i. Ergi, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergéd and
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque,
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are
often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression
or parenthesis. Idcired, for this reason, on this account, is regularly
followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, né), and
refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi vidétur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certé.
ergo et el quibus événit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus éventiirum est
miserl. mihi ita vidétur. ném6 ergs ndn miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) Death
seems to me to beanevil. ‘Itiswretched, then, since itis anevil.’ Certainly.
‘Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are
wretched.’ So it appearsto me. ‘ There is no one, therefore, who is not
wretched.’
quia natiira mitari non potest, idcircd vérae amicitiae sempiternae sunt
(Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friend-
ships are eternal.
§§ 824-326] NEGATIVE PARTICLES 203
j. Autem, enim, and vérd are postpositive!; so generally igitur and
often tamen.
k. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what
precedes: as, at vérd, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque
ergo, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of
course (§ 324. h).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles ?
325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points
are to be observed : —
326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : —
ném6 non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).
non possum non confitéri (Fam. ix. 14. 1), I must confess.
ut... né non timére quidem sine aliqué timdre possimus (Mil. 2), so that we
cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.
a. Many compounds or phrases of which non is the first part express
an indejsinite affirmative : —
non nillus, some; non nilli (= aliqui), some few.
non nihil (= aliquid), something.
non némd (= aliquot), sundry persons.
non numquam (= aliquotiéns), sometimes.
b. Two negatives of which the second is nén (belonging to the
predicate) express a universal affirmative : —
ném6 non, nillus non, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. non
némd, not nobody, i.e. somebody. |
nihil non, everything. ([Cf. non nihil, something.]
numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. nbn numquam, sometimes. ]
c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary
(Litotes, § 641): —
non semel (= saevissimé), often enough (not once only).
non haec sine niimine divom éveniunt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not
occur without the will of the gods.
haec non nimis exquird (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little.
Norse. —Compare non niillus, non némé, etc., in a above.
1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause.
2 For a list of Negative Particles, see § 217. e.
204 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [$§ 827-329
327. A general negation is not destroyed —
1. By a following né. . . quidem, not even, or non modo, not only : —
numquam tii ndn modo dtium, sed né bellum quidem nisi nefarium concupisti
(Cat. i. 25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never
desired any war-eacept one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordi-
nate member : —
eaque nesciébant nec ubi nec qualia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they knew not where
or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a coérdinate member : —
nequed satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannot wonder enough
nor conjecture.
328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or
with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of nega-
tion in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions :—
nulli (neutri) créd6 (not ndn crédd alli), I do not believe either (I believe
neither). -
sine alld periculé (less commonly cum nill6), with no danger (without any
danger).
nihil umquam audivi iticundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. negé haec esse véra (not dicé non esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.).
a, In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly ex-
pressed by neque (nec), not by et nén : —
hostés terga vertérunt, neque prius fugere déstitérunt (B. G. i. 53), the enemy
turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
Notrs.— Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et némd; neque illus for et
niillus; nec umquam for et numquam; néve (neu), for et né.
329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of
a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case,
the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that
immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather): —
causa igitur ndn bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7. 4), is the cause then not
a good one? on the contrary, the best.
a. Minus, less (especially with si, if, qué, in order that), and minimé,
least, often have a negative force : —
si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For qué minus, see § 558. b.]
audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minimé (Rosc. Am. 2), am I the boldest of
them all? by no means (not at all). —
§§ 330-332] FORMS OF INTERROGATION 205
: QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker : —
quid est? what is it? ubi sum? where am I?
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends ona verb
or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like : —
rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]
nescio ubi sim, I know not where Iam. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]
331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative
words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in
English.!
Nortr. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by
an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the differ-
ence being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunc-
tive (§ 574).
332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no,
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word: —
tine id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), did vou fear that ?
hicine vir usquam nisi in patria moriétur (Mil. 104), shall rH1s man die any-
where but in his native land?
is tibi mortemne vidétur aut dolorem timére (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to
you to fear death or pain?
a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : —
patére tua cOonsilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are
manifest ? (you do not see, eh ?)
Nore. —In such eases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful
whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
b. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nénne,
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega-
tive answer : —
nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe?
num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there?
Nore. — In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means
simply whether.
1 For a list of Interrogative Particles, see § 217. d.
206 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [$§ 832-335
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly
when added to some other word, has the force of ndnne : —
meministine mé in senatii dicere (Cat. i. 7), don’t you remember my saying
in the Senate?
récténe interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. iii. 87), do I not rightly interpret
your meaning ?
Nore 1.— This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the
negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English
interrogative no? shades off into eh ?
Nortr 2.— The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as,
utrumne, whether? anne, ov; quantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 317), how big? quone mald (id. ii. 3.
295), by what curse?
333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed
by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb
as in English (§ 152): —
quid exspectas (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to?
qué igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending?
Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 282), Icarus, where are you?
quod vectigal vobis tiitum fuit ? quem socium défendistis? cui praesidid
classibus vestris fuistis ? (Manil. 82), what revenue has been safe for you ?
what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets ?
Norr. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of
the voice: as,—
qualis vir erat! what a man he was!
quot calamitatés passi sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
quo studid consentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeal they unite!
a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter-
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : —
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger. ]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we?
in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they main-
tain this?
Norr— Tandem is sometimes added to verbs: —
ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you don’t suy so! (say you so, pray ?)
itane tandem uxdrem dixit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho’s got
married.
Double Questions
334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to
which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether,
stands in the first member; an, anne, 07, anndn, necne, 07 not, in the
second; and usually an in the third, if there be one : —
§ 335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207
utrum nescis, an pro nihild id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you don’t know,
or do you think nothing of it?
vosne L. Domitium an vos Domitius déseruit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert
Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?
quaero servOsne an liberds (Rosc. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vos an fortinam utriusque populi igndratis (Liv. xxi. 10),
is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you
do not know ?
Notsr, — Anne foranisrare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect ques-
tions it is commoner than anndn. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: —
Gabinio dicam anne Pompéid an utrique (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gabinius,
or to Pompey, or to both?
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?
quaesivi a Catilina in conventii apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 18),
I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Loca’s
or not.
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne)
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : —
an tii miserds putas illds (Tuse. i. 13), what! do you think those men wretched ?
an iste umquam dé sé bonam spem habuisset, nisi dé vébis malam opinidnem
anim6d imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever have had good hopes about
himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you ?
ec. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum
may ask a question to which there is no alternative : —
utrum est in clarissimis civibus is, quem... (Flacc. 45), is he among the
noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
utrum...an... an
utrum . . . anndn (necne, see § 335. n.)
. an (anne)
-ne aft ian
. . . “Me, necne
-ne . . » necne
-ne 5 2, Ae
Nore. — From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are
in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common
disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus, — quaer6 num inilisté aut improbé fécerit
(Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no
double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things.
supposed, not which of the two he did.
208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [$§ 336, 387
Question and Answer
336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim-
ply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or
some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering
negatively, the verb, etc., with ndn or a similar negative : —
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne técum, was he with you? non erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam novi? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sané, oh! nothing.
a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some-
times used to answer a direct question : —
1. For ves : —
vérd, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita vérd, certainly (so in truth), etc.
etiam, even so, yes, etc. sané quidem, yes, no doubt, etc.
ita, so, true, etc. ita est, itis so, true, etc.
sané, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
certé, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, it’s a fact, you’re right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For No: —
non, not so. nall6 mod6, by no means.
minimé, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a).
minimé vérd, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc. *
non hercle vérd, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)
Examples are : —
quidnam ? an laudatidnés? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut non respondére (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sané (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they
say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.
miser ergo Archelaus ? certé si iniiistus (Tusc. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched
then? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contemnitis ? minimé (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things? not
at all.
volucribusne et feris? minimé vérd (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts?
why, of course not.
ex tui animi sententia tii uxdrem habés? non hercle, ex mei animi sententia
(De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, ete.
337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna-
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : —
Vidisti an dé audit6 nintias ?— egomet vidi (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see
it or are you repeating something you have heard ? — I saw it myself.
§ 338] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence.
The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of unin-
flected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems,
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent.
Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing ; fidi-cen-, playing on the
lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such
relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues
to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at
least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru-
-mental were lost! except in a few words (where they remained without being recog-
nized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the
earliest case-relations. ‘The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends
in-s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a),
perhaps never had a suffix of itsown.2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the
suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily
expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have
had no single primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (To, FROM,
AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The 2arlier meanings, however,
have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer
distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost
from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate
the case-relations — especially those of place — more precisely, Prepositions (originally
adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their
significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay),
and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from
Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-
forms. Itis to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition,
and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation,
§§ 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, § 421 ff.)
The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek rrdous, a falling away (from the
erect position). The term rréots was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g),
to mark them as variations from the Nominative which was called 696%, erect (casus
réctus). The later name Nominative (casus ndminativus) is from nomind, and means
the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The
name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yevixh [rr Gers], from yévos (class),
and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus dativus, from 46) is
translated from Sor:«/, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accusativus, from
acciiso) is a mistranslation of airtarixy (the case of causing), from airia, cause, and
meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (vocativus, from vocd)
is translated from x\nrix7 (the case of calling). The name Ablative (ablativus, from
ablatus, auferd) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.
1Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and
ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).
2 The e-yocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45. c).
210 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 339-341
NOMINATIVE CASE
339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative : —
Caesar Rhénum transire décréverat (B. G. iv. 17), Caesar had determined to
cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295. a.
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations : —
én dextra fidésque (Aen. iv. 597), lo, the faith and plighted word!
ecce tuae litterae dé Varrone (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold, your letters about
Varro!
Nore. — But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d).
VOCATIVE CASE
340. The Vocative is the case of direct address : —
Tiberine pater, té, sancte, precor (Liv. ii. 10), O father Tiber, thee, holy one,
I pray.
rés omnis mihi técum erit, Horténsi (Verr. i. 33), my whole attention will be
devoted to you, Hortensius.
a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of
the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : —
audi tii, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead
of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : —
quo moritire ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
cénsorem trabeate saliitas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor.
c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte
estd (virtiite), success attend your (valor): —
iubérem té macte virtiite esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper
in your valor.
macte nova virtiite puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy!
Norte. — As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may
be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of
one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective
case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which
may be called adverbial cases.
§§ 341-343] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows: —
. Of Possession (§ 343). ~~
. Of Material (§ 344). bee
. Of Quality (§ 345).
. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
(Partitive, § 346).
With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348).
After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) (§ 349).
Of Specification (later use) (§ 349. d).
. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. (§§ 350, 351, 354).
. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 352).
I. Genitive with Nouns:
Rm ob ee
II. Genitive with Adjectives: {7
r
bo bo et ox
Ill. Genitive with Verbs:
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning
the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo-
sition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case : —
libri Cicerénis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero’s books.
inimici Caesaris, Cewsar’s enemies, or the enemies of Cesar.
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
vir summae virtitis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents : —
vacatio labéris, a respite rrom toil.
petitid cénsulatiis, candidacy ror the consulship.
régnum civitatis, royal power over the state.
Possessive Genitive
343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to
which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs : —
Alexandri canis, Alexander’s dog.
potentia Pompéi (Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey’s power.
Ariovisti mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus.
perditodrum temeritas (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.
Norte 1.— The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alez-
ander’s dog) or author (as in Cicero’s writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses
some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero’s eloquence, the strength of the
bridge, Catiline’s evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective
Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other
genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347).
Norte 2.— The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : —
ad Castoris [aedés] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul’s.]
Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromaché (Aen. iii. 319), Hector’s [wife] Andromache.
212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 343
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec-
tive is often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the per-
sonal pronouns (§ 302. a): —
liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei. ]
aliéna pericula, other men’s dangers. [But also alidrum. ]
Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae. |
b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected
with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive): —
haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father’s.
iam mé Pompéi totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all for Pom-
pey (all Pompey’s).
summa laus et tua et Briti est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both
to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus’s).
compendi facere, to save (make of saving).
lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).
Norr. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a
predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283).
c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited
by a genitive in the predicate : —
neque sui ifidici [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to
decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
ciiusvis hominis est errare (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man’s [liability] to err.
negavit moéris esse Graecorum, ut in convivid virdrum accumberent mulierés
(Verr. ii. 1. 66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to
appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), but ’tis the coward’s part to
wish for death.
stulti erat spéraire, suddére impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it was folly (the part of
a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqul, it is wise (the part of a wise man) fo say little.
[Not sapiéns (neuter) est, etc. ]
Norte 1.— This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NorE 2.— A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this
construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun: —
mentiri non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie.
himanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man’s nature to err (to err is human).
d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo-
sition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282) : —
nomen insaniae (for ndmen insania), the word madness.
oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of
Antioch.
§§ 344-346] PARTITIVE GENITIVE 213
Genitive of Material
344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of
which a thing consists (cf. § 403): —
talentum auri, a talent of gold. fliimina lactis, rivers of milk.
Genitive of Quality
345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when
the quality is modified by an adjective : —
vir summae virtitis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtitis. ]
magnae est déliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toil.
ille autem sui itdici (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own)
judgment.
Nore. — Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415). In expressions of quality, the geni-
tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestanti priidentia vir, a
man of surpassing wisdom ; maximi animi homd, a man of the greatest courage. In
classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla-
tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with
éius, and to nouns modified by magnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the
Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases éius
modi, cilius modi (equivalent to talis, swch ; qualis, of what sort):—
éius modi sunt tempestatés conseciitae, uti (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol-
lowed, that, etc.
b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas-
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): —
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].
miirus sédecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417.
Partitive Genitive
346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of
the Whole to which the part belongs.
a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are —
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below) :—
pars militum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.
némd edrum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them.
magnam partem edrum interfécérunt (id. ii. 23), they killed a large part of them.
/
214 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 346
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like
alius, alter, nillus, etc.: —
finus tribinérum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientum octavus (Hor, S§. ii. 3. 296), the eighth of the wise men.
milia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers.
animalium fortidra, the stronger [of] animals.
Suéborum géns est longé maxima et bellicdsissima Germandrum omnium
(B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of
all the Germans.
alter cénsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
nilla earum (B.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns :
tantum spati, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummérum, a few pence (something of coins).
id loci (or locérum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a).
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid novi, what news? (what of new ?)
paulum frimenti (B. C. i. 78), a little grain.
plis doliris (B. G. i. 20), more grief.
suialiquid timGris (B.C. ii. 29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
Norte 1.—In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a parti-
tive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
Notre 2.— The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used parti-
tively :—nihil novi (genitive), nothing new ; but, — nihil memorabile (nominative), noth-
ing worth mention (not nihil memorabilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place : —
parum Gti, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis peciiniae, money enough (enough of money).
plirimum titius Galliae equitati valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest of all Gaul
in cavalry.
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we (where of
nations) ?
ubicumque terrarum et gentium (Verr. v. 143), wherever in the whole world.
rés erat ed iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point
that, etc.
e6 miseridrum (Iug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : —
sequimur té, sancte dedrum (Aen. iv. 576), we follow thee, O holy deity. [For
sancte deus (§ 49. g. N.)]
nigrae landrum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), black wools. [For nigrae lanae. ]
expediti militum (Liv. xxx. 9), light-armed soldiers. [For expediti milités. ]
hominum ciinctés (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For ciinctds hominés ; cf. e.]
§§ 346-348] OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 215
ce. Cardinal numerals (except milia) regularly take the Ablative
with @ (ex) or dé instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam,
a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally : —
tnus ex tribiinis, one of the tribunes. [But also, tinus tribindrum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex illis (Iug. 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers.
tinus dé multis (Fin. ii. 66), one of the many.
pauci dé nostris cadunt (B. G. i. 15), a few of our men fall.
hominem dé comitibus meis, a man of my companions.
d. Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns
are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns
take a partitive genitive : —
uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
tinus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
‘e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any
thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So
also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of : —
nds omnés, all of us (we all). [Not omnés nostrum. ]
quot sunt hostés, how many of the enemy are there ?
cavé inimicés, qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.
multi milités, many of the soldiers.
ném6 Romanus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives,
and Verbs. .
348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive
of the Object : —
caritas tui, affection for you. désiderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatid mineris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness.
fuga malorum, refuge from disaster. precati6 dedrum, prayer to the gods.
contenti6 honérum, struggle for office. opinid virtitis, reputation for valor.
Nortr. —This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive).
Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Cesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs
to Cesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a).
The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very
unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the
phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father’s love
(subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).
216 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 848, 349
a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive
pronoun or other derivative adjective: —
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf.
odium mei (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.]}
laudator meus (Att. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri
laudator (id. i. 14. 6).]
Clédianum crimen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As
we say, the Nathan murder. |
metus hostilis (Iug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear). '
ea quae faciébat, tua sé fidiicia facere dicébat (Verr. v. 176), what he was
doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).
neque neglegentia tua, neque id odid fécit tub (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this
neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.
b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim-
ited by another genitive : —
animi multarum rérum percursio (‘Tusc. iv. 31), the mind’s traversing of many
things.
c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec-
tive genitive : —
odium in Antonium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony.
merita erga mé (id. i. 1. 1), services to me.
meam in té pietatem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you.
impetus in urbem (Phil. xii. 29), an attack on the city.
excessus 6 vita (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vitae,
Tuse. i. 27.]
adopti6 in Domitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late
and bold extension of this construction, ]
Norr.—So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. b): as,—longé
belld materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the
Objective Genitive.
a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power,
sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive : —
avidi laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastididsus litterarum, disdaining letters.
iiris peritus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iiire, cf. § 418.]
memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
ratidnis et dratidnis expertés (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae cdnsuétidinis imperiti (B.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs,
§ 349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217
plénus fidei, full of good faith.
omnis spei egénam (Tac. Ann. i. 53), destitute of all hope.
tempestatum potentem (Aen. i. 80), having sway over the storms.
impoténs irae (Liv. xxix. 9. 9), ungovernable in anger.
coniiiratidnis participés (Cat. iii. 14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affinis rei capitalis (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime.
insdns culpae (Liv. xxii. 49), innocent of guilt.
6. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as
adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a
particular act : —
si quem tui amantidrem cdgndvisti (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), if you have become
acquainted with any one more fond of you.
multitiidd insoléns belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.
erat Iugurtha appeténs gloriae militaris (lug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for mili-
tary glory.
Nore 1.— Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly goy-
erned by the verb to which they belong: as,—Sp. Maelium régnum appetentem inter-
émit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Melius, who was aspiring to royal power.
Nore 2.— Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1)
even when they express a disposition or character: as,— virtiis quam alii ipsam tem-
perantiam dicunt esse, alil obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et eam subsequen-
tem (Tuse. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
c. Verbals in -ax (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later
Latin: —
ifistum et tenicem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), @ man just and steadfast
to his purpose.
circus capax populi (Ov. A. A. i. 186), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cibi vinique capacissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 15), a very great eater and drinker
(very able to contain food and wine).
d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists
(Genitive of Specification) : —
callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water.
notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fessi rérum (Aen. i. 178), weary of toil.
integer vitae scelerisque piirus (Hor. Od. i. 22. 1), upright in life, and unstained
by guilt.
Note. — The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with
adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge ;
pauper, want ; purus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes
under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives
of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385. c. For Adjectives
with animi (locative in origin), see § 358.
218 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 350
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accu-
sative or the Genitive of the object : — :
a. Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of
retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence
the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint-
ances, or of things which one has experienced.
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to forget literally, to lose all
memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam memini (Phil. v. 17), I remember Ginna.
utinam avum tuum meminissés (id. i. 84), oh! that you could remember your
grandfather ! (but he died before you were born).
Postumium, cflius statuam in Isthm6d meminisse té dicis (Att. xiii. 32), Postu-
mius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Siron Epiciiri dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers all
the doctrines of Hpicurus.
multa ab aliis audita meminérunt (De Or. ii. 355), they remember many things
that they have heard from others.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case.
hinc iam obliviscere Graids (Aen. ii. 148), from henceforth forget the Greeks
(i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if
you had never known them). -
b. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or
regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something
(often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to disregard, or dismiss from
the mind, —and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless.
ipse sui meminerat (Verr. ii. 186), he was mindful of himself (of his own
interests).
faciam ut hfiius loci diéique méique semper mémineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will
make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
nec mé meminisse pigébit Elissae, dum memor ipse mei (Aen. iv. 335), nor
shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint verécundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty.
himanae infirmitatis memini (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness.
oblivisci temporum medrum, meminisse Actidnum (Fam. i. 9. 8), to disregard
my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue. ‘
nec tamen Epiciri licet oblivisci(Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
obliviscere caedis atque incendidrum (Cat. i.6), turn your mind from slaughter
and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).
§§ 350, 351] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219
Nore 1.— With both memini and obliviscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are
regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu-
larly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come
in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
NoteE 2,— Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,—eundem Achil-
lam ciius supra meminimus (B. C. iii. 108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned
above.
c. Reminiscoris rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense
of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figurative sense
of be mindfid of : —
dulcis moriéns reminiscitur Argés (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind
his beloved Argos.
reminiscerétur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae virtitis Helvé-
tidrum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the
Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, —
let him bear it in mind (and beware)! ]
d. Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative : —
recordare cénsénsum illum theatri (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agree-
ment of the [audience in the] theatre.
recordamini omnis civilis dissénsidnés (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil
wars.
Nore. — Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a per-
sonal object, but may be followed by dé with the ablative of the person or thing
(cf. § 351. Nn.) : —
dé té recordor (Scaur. 49), I remember about you.
dé illis (lacrimis) recordor (Plane. 104), I am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per-
son a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pro-
noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. ¢).
So admoned, commoned, commonefacid, commonefid. But moned with
the genitive is found in late writers only.
‘Catilina admonépat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sall. Cat. 21),
Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
eds hdc moned (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning.
quod vos léx commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of.
Nore. — All these verbs often take dé with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns
as well as of pronotins is sometimes used with them : —
saepius té admoned dé syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind: you again and
again of Sittius’s bond.
officium yostrum ut vos malo cdgatis commoné€rier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may
by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.
220 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 852, 353
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the
Genitive of the Charge or Penalty : —
arguit mé furti, he accuses me of theft.
pecilatis damnatus (peciiniae piiblicae damnatus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for
embezzlement.
vided non té absoliitum esse improbitatis, sed illds damnatds esse caedis
(Verr. ii. 1. 72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that
they were condemned for homicide.
a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —
capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death.
maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).
repetundarum [rérum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
voti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one’s vow, i.e. success-
Ful in one’s effort.
peciiniae (damnire, iiidicare, see note).
dupli etc., as in dupli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold.
Nortrs.— The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by peciiniae dam.
nare (Gell. xx. 1. 58), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person;
quantae pectiniae itidicati cssent (id.xx.1.47),Aow much money they were adjudged to pay,
in a mere suit for debt; cOnfessi aeris ac débiti itidicati (id. xx. 1.42), adjudged to owe
an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes
from the use of the genitive of value to express a swum of money due either as a debt or as
afine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of
fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to
the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a
confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). Itis quite unnecessary
to assume an ellipsis of crimine or itidicid.
353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are —
1. The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine,
and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416): —
Frusinatés tertia parte agri damnati (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino con-
demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with dé, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatic
expressions : —
dé alea, for gambling ; dé ambitii, for bribery.
dé peciniis repetundis, of extortion (cf. § 352. a).
inter sicdrids (Rosc. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
dé vi et maiestatis damnati (Phil. i. 21), convicted of assault and treason.
Norr.— The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the pen
alty ; as,—ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metalla, to the mines.
§§ 354, 355] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 291
Verbs of Feeling
354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object
which excites the feeling.
a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseréscd, take the genitive : —
miserémini familiae, iidicés, miserémini patris, miserémini fili (Flacc. 106),
have pity on the family, ete.
miserére animi non digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures
unworthy things.
miseréscite régis (id. viii. 573), pity the king. [ Poetical. ]
Notrr.— But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as,—comminem
condicidnem miserari (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.
b. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum
est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative
of the person affected :—
quis infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35), who are neither
ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
mé miseret parietum ipsdrum (Phil. ii. 69), I pity the very walls.
mé civitatis mérum piget taedetque (Iug. 4), I am sick and tired of the way;
of the state. 7
decemvirdrum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvtrs
c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be ex
pressed by an infinitive or a clause : —
neque mé paenitet mortalis inimicitias habére (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry
to have deadly enmities.
non dedisse istunc pudet; mé quia non accépi piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
Nore. — Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as sub-
ject: as, —non té haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you?
Interest and Réfert
355. The impersonals interest and réfert take the Genitive of
the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive
clause : —
Clédi intererat Mildnem perire (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that
Milo should die.
aliquid quod illérum magis quam sua rétulisse vidérétur (Iug. 111), something
which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
vided enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23. 4), for I
see what is for my good and for the good of us both.
222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 355, 356
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond-
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest
or réfert : —
quid tua id réfert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much.
[See also the last two-examples above. |
vehementer intererat vestra qui patrés estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would be
very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.
Norr. — This is the only construction with réfert in classic prose, except in one
passage in Sallust (see example above).
b. The accusative with ad is used with interest and réfert to ex-
press the thing with reference to which one is interested : —
magni ad hondrem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), gt is of great consequence
to our honor.
réfert etiam ad frictiis (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop.
Note 1.— Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with
réfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption) :—
quid id ad mé aut ad meam rem réfert (Pl. Pers. 513), what difference does that
make to me or to my interests ?
quid réferat intra natiirae finis viventi (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it
make to me who live within the limits of natural desire ?
non réferre dédecori (Tac. Ann. xy. 65), that it makes no difference as to the
disgrace.
Notes 2. — The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb,
or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni-
tive (cf. § 409. a. N.) : —
convivium vicindrum compledé (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I jill up the
banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae (Aen. i, 215), they fill themselves
with old wine and fat venison.
né quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod défénsidnis indigeat (Rosc. Am. 34), what is there that needs
defence?
quae ad consdlandum mAidris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtitis indi-
gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abil-
ity, and for endurance unusual courage.
Nor. — Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a,
401), except eged, which takes either case, and indiged. But the genitive is by a Greek
idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation
and want (cf. § 357. b. 3):—
abstinét6 irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath.
operum solitis (id. iii. 17. 16), free from toils.
désine mollium querellarum (id. ii. 9. 17), have done with weak complaints.
§§ 357-359] PECULIAR GENITIVES 223
Genitive with Special Verbs
357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as
always in the phrase potiri rérum, to be master of affairs : —
_ illus régni potiri (Fam. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom.
Cleanthés sdlem dominari et rérum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes ~
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
Notr.— But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 410).
b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive —
1. By analogy with those mentioned in § 354: —
neque hfiius sis veritus féminae primariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no
respect for this high-born lady.
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : —
fastidit mei (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastididsus. ]
studet tui (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studidsus. ]
3. In imitation of the Greek: —
iiistitiaene prius mirer, belline labérum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire
his justice or his toils in war? :
neque ille sépositi ticeris nec longae invidit avénae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did
he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus. |
labrum décipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes.
mé laborum levas (Pl. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.
358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with
a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like: —
Antiphéd mé excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in
my mind).
qui pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense.
mé animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, désipiébam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
aeger animi, sick at heart; confiisus animi, disturbed in spirit.
sanus mentis aut animi (Pl. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.
PECULIAR GENITIVES
359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following : —
a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation
of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation) : —
di immortalés, mercimGni lepidi (Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm-
ing bargain!
foederis heu taciti (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement !
224 - SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$$ 359, 360
b. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for
the sake of; ergs, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also
with pridié, the day before; postridié, the day after; tenus, as far as:
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor).
verbi gratia, for example.
éius légis ergd, on account of this law. :
equus instar montis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of
a mountain).
laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides.
Nore 1.— Of these the genitive with causa is a development from the possessive
genitive and resembles that inndmen insaniae (§ 345.d). The others are of various origin.
Nore 2.— In prose of the Republican Period pridié and postridié are thus used only
in the expressions pridié (postridié) éius diéi, the day before (after) that (cf. ‘‘ the eve, the
morrow of that day’’). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as, — postridié
insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenus takes also
the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is
a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the
direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of
to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor cael, Aen. y. 451) are regarded as
survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings : —
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by
it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it con-
sciously or actively. Thus in dedit puerd librum, he gave the boy a book, or fécit mihi
initiriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy’s receiving the book, and of my
feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal
attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So
in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al
hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative
(i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied
in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning
(to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves
(see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those
implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasion-
ally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following: —
1. Indirect Object (general { 1. With Transitives (§ 362).
use): { 2. With Intransitives (§§ 366-372).
1.¥Of Possession (with esse) (§ 373).
2L4of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 374).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: 4 3. Wf Reference (dativus commodi) (§§ 376-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 382).
| 5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (§§ 383, 384).
§§ 361-363] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 225
INDIRECT OBJECT
361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected
by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted
in English by the objective with to : —
cédite tempori, yield to the occasion.
provincia Cicerdni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
inimicis non crédimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES
362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative
of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose mean-
ing allows (see § 274): —
do tibi librum, I give you a book.
illud tibi affirm6 (Fam. i. 7. 5), this I assure you.
commendo tibi éius omnia negotia (id. i. 3), I put all his affairs in your hands
(commit them to you).
dabis profect6 misericordiae quod iracundiae negivisti (Deiot. 40), you will
surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
litteras 4 té mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), your messenger delivered
to me a letter from you.
a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and
take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone : —
mihi id aurum crédidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
equd né crédite (Aen. ii. 48), put not your trust in the horse.
concessit senatus postulatidni tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.
concédere amicis quidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all they may
wish.
363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction
between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative
of the End of Motion ($$ 426, 427) :—
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with
ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion pre-
vails : —
litteras quis ad Pompéium scrips! (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written
[and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo habérem quod tibi scriberem (id.
iv. 4), not that I had anything to write to you.]
226 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES _[§§ 368, 364
litterae extempl6 Romam scriptae (Liv. xli. 16), a letter was immediately written
[and sent] to Rome.
hostis in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut mé dem
fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight. ]
omnés rem ad Pompéium déferri volunt (Fam. i. 1), all wish the matter to be
put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by
the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion
is merged in some other idea : —
mihi litters mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter.
eum librum tibi misi (id. vii. 19), I sent you that book.
nec quicquam quod non mihi Caesar détulerit (id. iv. 18), and nothing which
Cesar did not.communicate to me.
ciirés ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4. 5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another.
364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and
the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative
of the person and the Ablative of the thing 1: —
ddnat corénas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
ddnat suds coronis, he presents his men with wreaths.
vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself).
omnis armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms.
Nore 1, —Interdico, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Abla-
tive of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of
the thing : —
aqua et ignialicui interdicere, to forbid one the use of fireand water. [The regular
formula for banishment.]
interdixit histridnibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on]
the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
féminis (dat.) purpurae isi interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid women
the wearing of purple?
Nore 2.— The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of
preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative.
Interclidd and prohibed sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose: —
hisce omnis aditis ad Sullam intercliidere (Rose. Am. 110), to shut these men off
From all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). ([Cf. uti commeati
Caesarem intercliideret (B. G. i. 48), to shut Cxsar off from supplies.)
hunc (oestrum) arcébis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the
flock. ([Cf. illum arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), he excluded him from Gaul.]
sdlstitium pecori défendite (Ecl. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf.
uti sé 4 contuméliis inimicdrum défenderet (B. C. i. 22), to defend himself
From the slanders of his enemies.] '
?
1Such are dnd, impertid, indud, exud, adspergo, inspergo, circumdé, and in poetry
accingo, implicd, and similar verbs.
§§ 365, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 227
365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and
Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive : —
nuntiabantur haec eadem Ciridni (B. C. ii. 37), these same things were
announced to Curio. [Active: niintiabant (quidam) haec eadem Ciridni. ]
nec docendi Caesaris propinquis éius spatium datur, nec tribinis plébis sui
periculi déprecandi facultas tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given Cesar’s
relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of
the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
provinciae privatis décernuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private
citizens. '
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES
366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any
intransitive verb whose meaning allows : —
cédant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown.
Caesari respondet, he replies to Cesar.
Caesari respondétur, a reply is given to Cesar (Cesar is replied to). [Cf.§372.]
respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), I have answered the heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique éveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each.
Note 1.— Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there-
fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a).
Nore 2. — Céd6, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the
Dative of the person: as, — cédere alicui possessiéne hortdrum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to”
one the possession of a garden.
a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a
kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a. n.?):—
: auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuaded).
quis huic rei testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact ?
is finis populatidnibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids.
b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377) :—
légatus fratri (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his
brother).
ministri sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. séditiénis minis-
tri (id. i. 17), agents of sedition. |
miseriis suis remedium mortem exspectare (Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death
as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. sdlus meérum miseriarumst remedium
(Ter. Ad. 294). ]
Norr.— The cases in a and } differ from the constructions of § 367. a. N.? and
§ 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to
which it serves as an indirect object.
228 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 867
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and
their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve,
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,' take the Dative : —
cir mihi invidés, why do you envy me?
mihi parcit atque igndscit, he spares and pardons me.
igndsce patrié doléri (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father’s grief.
subyeni patriae, opitulare conlégae (Fam. x. 10. 2), come to the aid of your
country, help your colleague.
mihi non displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me.
non omnibus servié (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant to every man.
non parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains.
sic mihi persudsi (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.
mihi Fabius débébit ignéscere si minus éius famae parcere vidébor quam anted
consului (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his
reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
huic legidni Caesar confidébat maximé (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion Cesar
trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning.
Thus: invidére, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire is to be
a slave to; suadére is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.
a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuvé, adiuvd, help; laed6, injure; iubeb, order; déficid, fail ;
délecti, please : —
hic pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis
nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes. ]
Norte 1. — Fid6 and confidé take also the Ablative (§ 431): as, —muitum natira loci
ednfidébant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
Norte 2.— Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of
similar meaning. Such are— praestd esse, be on hand (cf. adesse); modrem gerere,
humor (cf. morigerari) ; gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratificari) ; dictd audiéns esse,
be obedient (cf. oboedire) ; cui fidem habébat (BR. G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence
(ef. cOnfidébat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are — bene (male,
pulchré, aegré, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; initriam facere, do injustice to; diem
dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, ete.); agere gratiis, express one’s thanks;
habére gratiam, feel thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be neces-
sary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expénsum) ferre (esse), credit
(charge); hondrem habére, to pay honor to.
1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, céd6d, créd6, faved, fidd,
igndscd, imperd, indulged, invided, irascor, minitor, noced, parcd, pared, placed, resistd,
servid, studed, sudded (persuaded), suscénsed, temperd (obtemperd),
§§ 367, 368] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229
b. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adiilor, aemulor, déspérd, praestdlor, medeor : —
adilatus est Antonid (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony.
adilari Nerénem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.
pacem non déspéras (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace.
saliti déspérare vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety.
c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning : — 4
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens.
, cum té consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you.
metuéns pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nec metuunt deds (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also timed.]
prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regard for the state.
prospicere sédem senectiti (Liv. iv. 49. 14), to provide a habitation for old age.
[So also provides. ]
d. A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambush; obtemperatid, obedi-
ence) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs : —
insidiae consuli (Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. insidior).
obtemperati6 légibus (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtemperd).
sibi ipsi respOnsid (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. responded).
Nore. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal foree of the
noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 366. a, 6).
368. The Dative is used —
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), i¢ pleases, and licet, it is
allowed : —
quod mihi maximé lubet (Fam. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi non licéret (id. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male : —
mihi ipse numquam satisfacid (Fam. i. 1), I never satisfy myself.
optim6 viré maledicere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere rei piblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to
benefit the state.
Nore. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as
such by the Romans. Thus, — satis officid med, satis ill6rum voluntati qui 4 mé hdc
petivérunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130), I shall consider that enough has been
done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.
1 See the Lexicon under caved, convenid, cupid, insists, maned, praevertd, recipis, re-
nuntio, solvo, succedo.
230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES _[§§ 368, 369
3. With gratificor, gratulor, niibd, permittd, plaudé, probé, studed, os
plicé, excelld : —
Pompéié sé gratificiri putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey
@ service.
gratulor tibi, mi Balbe (id. vi. 12), J congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permittd respondére (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer.
mihi plaud6 ipse domi (Hor. S$. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at home.
cum inimici M. Fontéi vobis ac populd Romano minentur, amici ac propinqui
supplicent vobis (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are
threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives
are beseeching you.
Nore. — Misceé and iungd sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. N.). Haered usually
takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as,—haerentem capiti coyd-
nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath clinging to the head.
a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially
with verbs of contending (§ 413. b): —
contendis Homéré (Prop. i. 7. 3), you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homérd. }
placitone etiam pignabis amori (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a
love that pleases you ?
tibi certat (Ecl. v. 8), vies with you. [técum.]
differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose. [& sermone, § 401.]
lateri abdidit énsem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side. [in latere,
§ 430. ]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h.
369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusa-
tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect
(cf. § 362. a) :—
cui cum réx crucem minarétur (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened
him with the cross.
Créténsibus obsidés imperavit (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi igndscere (Vell. ii. 30), to pardon one’s self everything.
Ascaniéne pater ROmanas invidet arcés (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy
Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invided this construction is poetic
or late.]
a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained : —
qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgéri aequum cénset (Liv. xl. 15. 16),
who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a
Favor.
singulis cénsdribus dénarii trecenti imperati sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hun-
dred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtiis (Quint. xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has
been granted excellence in oratory.
—_
§ 370] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231
Indirect Object with Compounds
370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, ¢on, in, inter, ob,
post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative
of the indirect object : —
neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.
quantum natira hominis pecudibus antecédit (Off. i. 105), so far as man’s
nature is superior to brutes.
si sibi ipse cdnsentit (id. i. 5), if he is in accord with himself.
virtiités semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always con-
nected with pleasures.
omnibus negétiis non interfuit sdlum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had
a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to
the weather.
nec umquam succumbet inimicis (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his
Foes.
cum et Briitus cuilibet ducum praeferendus vidérétur et Vatinius nilli non
esset postferendus (Vell. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put
before any of the generals and V atinius deserved to be put after all of them.
a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but
on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction
of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat suds, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so
modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to
make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperatérem bell, to put a
man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com-
position is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. 5).
Norte 1.—Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object:
as, —né offeramus nds periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
Norse 2.— The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362,
' 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
b. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b):—?
nds oppiignat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter
a man well attended ?
miinus obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.
1 Such verbs are aggredior, aded, antecédd, anteed, antegredior, convenié, ined, obed,
offend6, oppugnd, praecéd6, subed.
232 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 870-3873
c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take
the dative : —
si ille obvius ei futiirus ndn erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in
his way.
mihi obviam vénisti (Fam. ii. 16. 3), you came to meet me.
371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs
mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition :
inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine coniiincté mécum (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum hdc concurrit ipse Eumenés (Nep. Eum. 4. 1), with him Eumenes him-
self engages in combat (runs together).
inserite oculis in ciiriam (Font. 438), fix your eyes on the senate-house.
ignis qui est ob 6s offiisus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.
obicitur contra istdrum impetiis Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to
withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quis vébis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if
any mistake has been caused you. |
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.
Norr.— But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in
the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used imper-
sonally in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 365):
cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could be spared?
non modo non invidétur illi aetati verum etiam favétur (Off. ii. 45), that age
(youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempori serviendum est(Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion.
Nortr.— In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as,— cir invideor
(Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied ?
Dative of Possession
373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote
Possession : —
est mihi domi pater (Ecl. iii. 88), I have a father at home (there is to me).
homini cum de6 similitiidd est (Legg. i. 25), man has a likeness to God.
quibus opés nillae sunt (Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.
Notr.— The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the
Dative, the fact of possession: as,—liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one’s
else) ; est mihi liber, 7 HAVE a book (among other things).
a. With nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put
in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the
Nominative is also common : —
§§ 373-875] DATIVE OF THE AGENT 233
(1) cui Africdnd fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was
Africanus.
puero ab inopia Egerid inditum nomen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given
the boy from his poverty.
(2) puerd némen est Marcus, the boy’s name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nOmen Arethiisa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa.
Nore. — In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the
dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (ef. § 343. d):
as,— Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Vell. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the
name of Macedonicus was given.
b. Désum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regu-
larly has the ablative) : —
hdc imum Caesari défuit (B.G. iv. 26), this only was lacking to Cesar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him?
Dative of the Agent
374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to
denote the person on whom the necessity rests : —
haec vobis provincia est défendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to
defend (to be defended by you).
mihi est pignandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf.
mihi est liber, I have a book, § 373. n.).
a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196).
Nore 1. — The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger
erpression is desired : —
quibus est 4 vobis cOnsulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two
datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous. ]
rem ab omnibus vobis providendam (Rabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to
by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]
Nore 2.— The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses-
sion or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 376).
375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti-
ciples (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with
other parts of the verb: —
mihi déliberatum et cdnstitiitum est es Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and
resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mihi rés provisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been weainiten Sor by me.
sic dissimillimis béstiolis comminiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by
very different creatures food is sought in common.
234 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 875-377
a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers
with almost any passive verb : —
neque cernitur alli (Aen. i, 440), nor is seen by any.
félix est dicta soréri (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), she was called happy by her sister.
Aelia Paetina Narcissd fovébatur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), dlia Patina was
favored by Narcissus.
b. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used
after videor, seem :—
vidétur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
dis aliter visum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), i¢ seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv. 13. 5), I seem (to myself) to see
the soul of the man himself.
Nore.— The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative
of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with
the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent: —
haec sententia et illi et ndbis probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his
approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).
hoe cénsilium plérisque non probabatur (B. C. i. 72), this plan was not approved by
the majority. [But also, consilium 4 ciinctis probabatur (id. i. 74).]
Dative of Reference
376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but
‘on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of
Advantage or Disadvantage,’ as denoting the person or thing for
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi aris (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tuas rés tibi habétd (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula
of divorce).
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudavit
fratrem meum would imply no such motive).
meritds mactavit hondrés, taurum Neptind, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo
(Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to
thee, beautiful Apollo.
Nore.— In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the
dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin-
gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances
even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole
idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word :
1 Dativus commodi aut incommodi.
Mu,
§§ 377-379] DATIVE OF REFERENCE 285
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of
the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis-
advantage of, etc.).
sé in cdnspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of the
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
versatur mihi ante oculés (id. v. 128), i¢ comes before my eyes (it comes to me
before the eyes). ;
378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view
an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,! but is
merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used —
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me,
etc.) : —
Plat6 mihi tinus instar est centum milium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me)
Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Ecl. i. 7), he will always be a god to me (in my
regard).
quae est ista servitiis tam claré homini (Par. 41), what is that slavery according
to the view of this distinguished man?
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the
person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative
plural : —
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiré (B. C. iii. 80), the first town
of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laeva parte sinum intranti (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf
(to one entering).
est urbe égressis tumulus (Aen. ii. 718); there is, as you come out of the city,
a mound (to those having come out).
Norsr.—The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by
noléns, voléns (participles of n616, vol), or by some similar word :—
ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might
receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut militibus labds volentibus esset (Iug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the
task willingly.
379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without
any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : —
quo mihi fortiinam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?
quo tibi, Tilli (id. i. 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius?
1 Dativus iudicantis.
236 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 879-381
a. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me!
vae victis (Liv. v. 48), woe to the conquered.
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.]
Nors.— To express FoR— meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of —the
ablative with pré is used :—
pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one’s country.
ego 1bo pro té (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.
Ethical Dative
380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a
certain interest felt by the person indicated.!
This construction is called the Ethical Dative.? It is really a
faded variety of the Dative of Reference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 15), pray what is Celsus doing ?
suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
at tibi repente venit mihi Caninius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden
comes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argenti (Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ?
Dative of Separation
381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative
(especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation
(§ 401).
Such are compounds of ab, dé, ex, and a few of ad: —
aureum ei détraxit amiculum (N. D. iii. 85), he took from him his cloak of
gold.
hunc mihi terrdrem Gripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror.
vitam aduléscentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
life.
nihil enim tibi détraxit senatus (Fam. i. 5 8), for the senate has taken nothing
from you.
nec mihi hunc errdrem extorquéri vol6 (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error
wrested from me.
Nores.— The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre-
sents the actionas done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative.
1 Compare ‘‘I’ll rhyme you so eight years together.””— As You Like It, iii. 2.
2 Dativus éthicus.
§§ 381, 382] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 237
a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prep-
osition — thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1): —
illum ex periculd éripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger.
Nortr. — Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a
preposition are both used with the same verb: as, —mihi praeda dé manibus éripitur
(Verr. ii. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands.
Dative of the Purpose or End
382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often
with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in
only a few constructions, as follows : —
1, The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which
a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of
the person or thing affected : —
rei piblicae cladi sunt (Iug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a
disaster to the state),
magn6 dsui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men (to
our men for great use).
tertiam aciem nostris subsidié misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief
to our men.
suis saliti fuit (id. vii. 50), he was the salvation of his men.
événit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which
was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
Note 1.— This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double
Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for
which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec-
tive, except one of degree (magnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
Nore 2.— The word frigi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind : —
cdgis mé dicere inimicum Frigi (Font. 39), you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
hominés satis fortés et plané friigi (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly
honest. Cf. erd frigi bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for some-
thing. [See § 122. b.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry : —
locum castris déligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).
receptui signum (Phil. xiii. 15), the signal for retreat.
optavit locum régné (Aen. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom.
locum insidiis cireumspectare (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an
ambush. ([Cf. locum séditidnis quaerere (id. iii. 46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. b.
238 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES _[§§ 383-885
Dative with Adjectives
383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote
that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or
towards which it tends. ©
_Norr.— The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
\ 384, The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of
fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites :!
nihil est tam natirae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amanti putd (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castris iddneum locum délégit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a
camp.
tribiini ndbis sunt amici (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16), the tribunes are friendly to us.
esse propitius potest némini (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody.
‘magnis autem viris prosperae semper omnés rés (id. ii. 167), but to great men
everything is always favorable.
sédés huic nostrd non importiina sermoni (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit-
able for this conversation of ours. ;
cui fund6 erat affinis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was
next neighbor.
conyenienter natiirae vivere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature
(dporoyounevws TH poet).
Nore 1.— So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem: as, —invitum qui servat
idem facit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same
as one who kills him. .
NotE 2.— Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also
the adverbs aequé, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly atque or a
relative : —
Si parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to
his beauty (like as his beauty).
té suspicor eisdem rébus quibus mé ipsum commoyéri (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are
disturbed by the same things by which I am.
385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative
might be expected : —
a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad
to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons : —
aptus ad rem militarem, fit for a soldier’s duty.
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.
nobis iitile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.
1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodatus, aptus; amicus, inimicus, infestus, invisus,
molestus; iddneus, opportiinus, proprius; Utilis, initilis; affinis, finitimus, propinquus,
vicinus; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis; iicundus, gratus; nOdtus, igndtus, and others.
§ 385] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239
b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the
Accusative with in or erga: —
comis in uxdrem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife.
divina bonitas erga hominés (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men.
dé benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Off. i. 47), in regard to each
man’s good will which he has towards us.
gratidrem mé esse in té (Fam. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you.
c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few
others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive
Genitive : —?
quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optare débétis (Manil. 48), which
you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit hdc quondam proprium populi Romani (id. 32), this was once the peculiar
characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
cum utrique sis maximé necessarius (Att. ix. 7a), since you are especially
bound to both. [Dative.]
procirator aequé utriusque necessarius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely
connected with both. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are
used wholly or approximately as nouns : —
amicus Cicerdni, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicerdnis amicus, a friend of Cicero ;
and even, Cicerdnis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
créticus et éius aequalis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent the pean.
hi erant affinés istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man’s fellows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers.
Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the
dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui,
etc.), and also in véri similis, probable : —
domini similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you’rélike your master (your master’s like.
ut essémus similés dedrum (N. D. i. 91), that we might be like the gods.
est similis maidrum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he’s like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father.
simia quam similis turpissima béstia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.),
how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
si enim hic illi simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that
is like this.
Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349. but
possessive (cf. § 343).
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proximé, see § 432. a,
1 Such are aequAlis, affinis, aliénus, amicus, cOgnatus, commiinis, cOnsanguineus, contra
rius, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius
(regularly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vicinus.
240 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 886, 387
ACCUSATIVE CASE
386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely
with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjec-.
tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative
(run arace, fight a battle, see § 390). From this it would bea short step to the Factitive
Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, ef. § 273. N.?).
From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table,
plug ahole, see § 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose
connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. § 265. 3).1
It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with
certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows:
1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a).
: Thing produced (§ 387. a).
2. Effect of the Action { Cognate Accusative (§ 390).
I, Primary Object:
1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (§ 393).
II. Two Accusatives: 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396).
3. Of Concealing (§ 396. ¢).
1. Adverbial (§ 397. a).
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. 0).
3
4
5
III. Idiomatic Uses: . Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425).
. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d).
. Subject of Infinitive (§ 397. e).
Direct Object
387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac-
cusative (§ 274).
a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is
directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action
of the verb: —
(1) Britus Caesarem interfécit, Brutus killed Cesar.
(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pignare, to fight a battle,
§ 390. ]
Nors.— There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished
from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied)
are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely.
Thus timed, J fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timed, I fear my enemy, but
intransitive (absolute) in noli timére, don’t be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi-
tive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,— Helvétids superavérunt Romani, the
Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over).
So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight
change of meaning: as, —ridés, you are laughing; but mé ridés, you’re laughing at me.
1 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms; fidicen, lyre-player,
with fidibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tactid (Plaut.), the
[act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (§ 388. d. n.),
§§ 387, 388] ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT 241
b. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275): —
Briitus Caesarem interfécit, Brutus killed Cesar.
Caesar 4 Brito interfectus est, Cesar was killed by Brutus.
domum aedificat, he builds a house.
domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built).
388. Certain special verbs require notice.
a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take
an accusative, and may be used in the passive : —
meum cdsum lictumque doluérunt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity
and sorrow.
si non Acrisium risissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 16. 5), if Jupiter
and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
ridétur ab omni conventii (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whole
assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see § 390. a.
Norr.— Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in
poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative :—
geméns ignominiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doled.]
festinadre fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelerd.]
comptos 4rsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9.13), she burned with love for his well-combed
locks. [Cf. adam6.]
b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trans, and praeter, and
a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative
(cf. § 3870. b): —
mortem obire, to die (to meet death).
consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship.
néminem convéni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one.
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.
transire fliimen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 395).
civés qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the
senate.
Norr.— Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dédecet, délec-
tat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit : —
ita ut vés decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.
mé pedibus délectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it
pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi mé fallit, wnless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).
ifivit mé tibi tuds litteras prodfuisse (Fam. v. 21. 3), it pleased me that your
literary studies had profited you.
té non praeterit (Fam. i. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice.
242 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$$ 388-890
Nore 1.—So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, —latet plérdsque
(Plin. N. H. ii. 82), it is unknown to most persons.
Note 2.— These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic significa-
tion. Hence most of them are also used personally.
Nore 3.— Decet and latet sometimes take the dative: —
ita nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it be/its us.
hostique Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. 614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
ad. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from
a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are :—
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).
vincere iidicium (sponsidnem, rem, hic), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the
case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi. 688.]
aequor navigare (Aen. i. 67), to sail the sea. [Asif it were transire, § 388. b.]
maria aspera iiird (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. vi. 324).
(The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic. ]
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
Nore 1.— These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches
the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390).
Notes 2.— In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran-
sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative :—
quid tibi istanc tactid est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her?
(Cf. tango.]
mirabundi béstiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.]
vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. ([Cf. vitd.]
389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely,
having their natural object in the ablative with dé (§ 273. nN. 2): —
priusquam Pompdonius dé éius adventii cogndsceret (B. C. iii. 101), before
Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. éius adventi cdgnitd, his
arrival being discovered. }
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354.b. For the Accusative
after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see § 500. 3.
Cognate Accusative
390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun
of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some
other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative
of Kindred Signification : —
tiitidrem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivébat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the
third generation of men.
servitiitem servire, to be in slavery.
coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance.
§ 890] COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 243
a. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative
of the quality : —
vinum redoléns (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), the honey tastes [of] grass.
olére malitiam (Rosc. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice.
Cordubae natis poétis, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrinum (Arch.
26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and
foreign accent.
b. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets : —
huic errdri similem [errérem] Insanire (Hor. §. ii. 3. 62), to suffer a delusion
like this.
saltare Cyclipa (id. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchanflia vivere (Iuv. ii. 3), to live in revellings.
Amaryllida resonare (Ecl. i. 5), to reécho [the name of] Amaryllis.
intonuit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left.
dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling, sweetly
prattling.
acerba tuéns (Aen. ix. 794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. ‘‘to look daggers.’’]
torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly.
c. A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very
common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a): —
Empedoclés multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other
errors.
ego illud adsentior Theophrasté (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theo-
phrastus.
multum té ista fefellit opinid (Verr. ii. 1. 88), you were much deceived in this
expectation (this expectation deceived you much).
pliis valed, I have more strength.
plirimum potest, he is strongest.
quid mé ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me?
hdc té moned, I give you this warning (cf. d. n. 4).
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. n. 1).
quid moror, why do I delay ?
quae hominés arant, navigant, aedificant (Sall. Cat. ii. 7), what men do in
ploughing, sailing, and building.
d. So in many common phrases : —
si quid ille sé velit (B. G. i. 34), if he should want anything of him (if he
should want him in anything).
numquid, Geta, aliud mé vis (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you,
Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form
of leave-taking. ]
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hdc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664),
was it for this that, etc.?]
244 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 890-393
Nore 1.—In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some
other construction :—
in hdc eddem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bonis rébus laetari, fo rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, dé, or ex.]
dé testament monére, to remind one of the will. (Later: genitive, § 351.]
officl admonére, to remind one of his duty. [Also: dé officid.]
Nore 2.— In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has
so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, — multum, plis, plirimum ;
plérumque, for the most part, generally ; céterum, cétera, for the rest, otherwise, but;
primum, first ; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat ; quid, why ; facile, easily.
So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and
some of the examples under ) may be classed as adverbial.
Two AcCCUSATIVES
391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi-
tion to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or
(2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per-
son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it,
is called a Predicate Accusative.
393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming,
showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along
with the direct object : —
6 Spartace, quem enim té potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), O Spartacus, for
what else shall I call you (than Spartacus) ?
Cicerdnem consulem creire, to elect Cicero consul.
mé augurem noOminavérunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur.
cum gratias ageret quod sé cénsulem fécisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked
him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).
hominem prae sé néminem putavit (Rosc. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man
in comparison with himself.
ducem sé praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader.
Notr.— The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as,—hominés mitis red-
didit et mansuétos (Inv. i. 2), has made men mild and gentle.
a. Inchanging from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284) : —
réx ab suis appellatur (B. G. viii. 4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active:
sui eum régem appellant. ]
§§ 394, 395] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT 245—
Secondary Object
394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along
with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected
by the action of the verb.
395. ‘Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes
take (in addition to the direct object) a Peco y Object, origi-
nally governed by the preposition : —
Caesar Germands flimen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Caesar throws the Germans
across the river.
idem itis iirandum adigit Afranium (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oath from
Afranius.
quds Pompéius omnia sua praesidia circumdixit (id. iii. 61), whom Pompey
conducted through all his garrison.
Note 1.— This construction is common only with tradiicé, traicid, and transporto.
The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trans, and usually with
compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used :—
donec rés suas trans Halyn flimen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get
their possessions across the river Halys.
(exercitus) Padd traiectus Cremonam (id. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed across
the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 429. a).
Norte 2.— The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as, — Belgae
Rhénum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
Note 3.— The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force
of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound,
the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive
verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue
of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,— the same which was for-
merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicid comes to
mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.): —
gladio hominem traiécit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacid has lost
all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean-
ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum traiécit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacid has become simply a verb
of motion, and traicid is hardly distinguishable from transe6. ]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiécit
were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the
’ passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative : —
hom6 traiectus est gladi6, the man was pierced with a sword.
Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of
two constructions: (1) eum traiécit lora, he rove thongs through him,! and (2) eum
traiécit loris, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form,
the direct object of the former (l6ra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the
latter (eum) is made the subject.
1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. traiect6 fiine (Aen. vy. 488).
246 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 896
396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusa-
tives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing
(secondary object): —
mé sententiam rogivit, he asked me my opinion.
dtium divés rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest.
haec praetérem postulabas (Tull. 39), jouw demanded this of the pretor.
aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] ediles.
docére puerés elementa, to teach children their A B C’s.
Nore. — This construction is found in classical authors with 6r6, poscd, reposcd, rog6,
interrogo, flagitd, doced.
© Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a
preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petd (ab), quaerd
(ex, ab, dé); usually poscd (ab), flagitd (ab), postuld (ab), and occa-
sionally others : —
pacem ab Rémanis petiérunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Romans.
quod quaesivit ex mé P. Apuléius (Phil. vi. 1), what Publius Apuleius asked
of me.
b. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the per-
son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. n.?):—
Caesar sententiam rogatus est, Cesar was asked his opinion.
id ab e6 flagitabatur (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him.
Norr.— The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogo, and
of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs :—
fuerant hoc rogati (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Oy. M. vii. 771), I am asked for my Lelaps.
Cicer6 ciincta édoctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the
subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a
preposition: as,—né postulantur quidem virés 4 senectiite (Cat. M. 34), strength is
not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
c. The verb cél6, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually
intransitive lated, lie hid, an accusative of the person: —
non té célavi serménem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conceal from you
the talk of Titus Ampius.
nec latuére doli fratrem Iindnis (Aen. i. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno
escape the notice of her brother.
Note 1.— The accusative of the person with lated is late or poetical (§ 388. c. N.1).
Nore 2.— All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the waver-
ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doced means both to show a thing, and to instruct
a person; céld, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rogo, to question
a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded
as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for
convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.
§ 897] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247
.
Idiomatic Uses
397. The Accusative has the following special uses : —
a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial
Accusative) : —
id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aetatis, at that age.
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam partem, for the most part.
virile (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in
apposition).
quod si, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.
b. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry
and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected : —
caput nectentur (Aen. v. 309), their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound
about the head),
ardentis oculés suffecti sanguine et igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood.
shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
niida geni (id. i. 8320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).
femur tragula ictus (Liv. xxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.
Norr.— This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be
regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a):
initile ferrum cingitur (Aen. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel.
nod6 sinis collécta fluentis (id. i. 820), having her flowing folds gathered in
a knot.
umerds insternor pelle lednis (id. ii. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion’s
skin.
protinus induitur faciem cultumque Diainae (Ov. M. ii. 425), forthwith she
assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations : —
o fortindtam rem piblicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. 6 fortimata mors
(Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (§ 339. a).]
6 mé infélicem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy I!
mé miserum, ah, wretched me !
én quattuor ards (Ecl. v. 65), lo, four altars !
ellum (= em illum), there heis! [Cf. § 146. a. n. ?.]
eccds (= ecce eds), there they are, look at them!
pro deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods) !
hdcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation !
huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens !
248 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [S§ 397, 398
Note 1.—Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The
substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases
suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
Nore 2.— The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusa-
tives. Such are: —
salitem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
mé dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?
quo mihi fortinam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb
thought of.]
e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative : —
intellegé té sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive that you are wise.
eas rés iactari ndlébat (B. G. i. 18), he was unwilling that these matters should
be discussed.
Norte. — This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking,
telling, and perceiving (§ 580).
f. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition
with a clause : —
déserunt tribiinal . . . maniis intentantés, causam discordiae et initium arm6-
rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, —
a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
Note. — This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more
nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — Eumenem prodidére Antioché, pacis mercé-
dem (Sall. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here
Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427.2 ; for the Accusative of Dura-
tion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions,
see § 220.
. ABLATIVE CASE
398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms
of three cases,—the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative,
In; and the Instrumental, wirH or By. These three cases were originally not wholly
distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develop-
ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of
which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the
phrases 4 parte dextera, on the right; quam ob causam, rrom which cause; ad fimam,
AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative
and ablative plural, the old dative in -é of the fifth declension (§ 96), and the loss of the
original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. n.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.).
The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison;
that of WITH or By, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price ;
that of IN or At, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the
original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be
attached)1 is set forth in the following table: —
1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and
the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.
§§ 398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 249
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 400).
f Source (participles of origin etc.) (§ 403).
Of Cause (labord, exsilid, etc.) (§ 404).
4, Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 405).
5.46f£ Comparison (THAN) (§ 406).
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§ 408 ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents itor etc. (§ 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§ 413).
II. Instrumental Ablative | 4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 414).
(with): ) 5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§ 415).
6
7
8
I. Ablative Proper (from)
(Separative):
3. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416).
. Of Specification (§ 418).
. Ablative Absolute (§ 419).
Ill. Locative Ablative (in, { 1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (§ 421).
on, at): { 2. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423).
399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in .
English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by: —
liberare meti, to deliver from fear.
excultus doctrina, trained in learning.
hdc ips6 tempore, at this very time.
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice.
occisus gladid, slain by the sword.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by
the ablative.
401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and
want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) : —
oculis sé privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omni Gallia Romanis interdicit (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans
from the whole of Gaul.
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vell. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and
water, ~ [The regular formula of banishment. ]
voluptatibus carére (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
non eged medicina (Lael. 10), I want no physic.
levyimur superstitidne, liberimur mortis meti (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved
from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
soliti 4 cupiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires.
multds ex his incommodis peciinia sé liberasse (Verr. v. 23), that many have
freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 356. N.
250 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 402, 403
402. Verbs compounded with 4, ab, dé, ex, (1) take the simple
Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to
denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a prepo-
sition (§ 426. 1) : —
(1) cénaté désistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
désine commiinibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.
abire magistrati, to leave one’s office.
abstinére iniiiria, to refrain from wrong.
(2) & préposité aberrare (Fin. v. 83), to wander from the point.
dé provincia décédere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one’s province.
ab iiire abire (id. ii. 114), to go outside of the law.
ex civitate excessére (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf.
finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory. |
a magn6 démissum nomen Iald (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down)
from great Iulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Abla-
tive of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427.1, 428. f.
a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the
ablative : —
urbs ntida praesidid (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.
imminis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service.
plébs orba tribiinis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.
Notrr.— A preposition sometimes occurs :—
a culpa vacuus (Sall. Cat. 14), free from blame.
liberi 4 déliciis (Leg. Agr. i. 27), free from luxuries.
Messana ab his rébus vacua atque niida est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and
bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote
the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of
which it consists : —
1. Source : —
Rhénus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the
country of the Lepontii.
ab his serm6 oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cfiius ratidnis vim atque iitilitatem ex ill6 caelesti Epiciiri voliimine accépi-
mus (N. D. i. 48), of this reasoning we have learned the power and
advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suavitatem oddrum qui afflarentur é floribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of
the oders which breathed from the flowers.
§ 403] ABLATIVE OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL 251
2. Material : —
erat totus ex fraude et mendacid factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of
Fraud and falsehood.
valvas magnificentidrés, ex auré atque ebore perfectidrés (Verr. iv. 124),
more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory..
factum dé cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks.
templum dé marmore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), Ill build a temple of marble.
Note 1.—In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
Note 2.—The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source.
For the Genitive of Material, see § 344.
a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla-
tive of Source, generally without a preposition :—1?
Iove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 56), son of Jupiter and Maia.
édite régibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings.
quo sanguine crétus (Aen. ii. 74), born of what blood.
genitae Pandione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion.
Nore 1.—A preposition (ab, dé, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : —
ex mé hic natus non est sed ex fratre med (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but
my brother’s (not born from me, etc.).
cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had
a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Bélus et omnés 4 Béld (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
Norr 2.— Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, —
désideravit C. Fleginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Caius
Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.
Notre 3.—The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,—
Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
b. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep-
osition. Such are codnstare, cénsistere, and continéri.? But with con-
stare, ex is more common : —
domitis amoenitas nén aedificid sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm
of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
ex animd constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore et spiritii continétur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
ce. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with
facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of : —
quid hdc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this
man ?
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia ?
quid té futiirum est (Verr. ii. 155), what will become of you?
1 As natus, satus, éditus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, crétus, creatus, oriundus.
2 The ablative with cénsistere and continéri is probably locative in origin (cf. § 431).
252 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 403, 404
d. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : —
non pauca pocula ex auré (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold.
scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
404, The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to
express Cause : —!
‘neglegentid plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence.
gubernatoris ars itilitate ndn arte laudatur (Fin. i. 42), the pilot’s skill is
praised for its service, not its skill.
certis dé causis, for cogent reasons.
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound.
mare 4 sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labéré
(also with ex), exsilid, exsult6, triumphd, lacrimd, arded : —
doled té aliis malis labdrare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with
other ills. [Cf. ex aere aliénd laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under
debt (from another’s money). ]
exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudid coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in
gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilui gaudid (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrim6 gaudid (Ter.
Ad. 409), I weep for joy. ]
ardére dolore et ira (Att. ii. 19. 5), to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaudeé and glirior, see § 431.
&. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is.
expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob? or propter with the accusative : —
non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through
lust of plunder.
amicitia ex sé et propter sé expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought
of and for itself.
Norr.— But these constructions are often confused: as,—parére légibus propter
metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equiva-
lent to ‘‘the terrors of the law,’’ and hence propter is used, though the ablative would
be more natural.]
1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, dé,
ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness.
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old
Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).
2 Originally a mercantile use: ef, ob decem minds, for the price of ten mine.
§§ 404, 405] ABLATIVE OF AGENT 2538
e. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a
genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : —
ea causa, on account of this; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose ?
mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake.
ex mea et rei piiblicae causa, for my own sake and the republic’s.
praedictionis causa (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy.
exempli gratia (verbi gratia), for example.
sui pirgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
Note.— But gratia with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of Agent
405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by
the Ablative with a or ab: —
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. 8. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these,
blamed by those.
ab animé tué quidquid agitur id agitur a té (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by
your soul is done by yourself.
a filiis in itdicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons.
cum 4 cinctd cénsessii plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great
applause had been given by the whole audience.
né virttis ab audacia vincerétur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne
by audacity. [Audacia is in a manner personified. ]
Nore 1.—This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The desas
is conceived as the source or author of the action.
Norrt 2.—The ablative of the agent (which requires 4 or ab) must be carefully
distinguished from the ablative of instrwment, which has no preposition (§ 409). Thus
—occisus gladié, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
Nore 3.— The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but
it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing
an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran-
sitive verbs that have a passive sense : —
perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means,
is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a
genitive or possessive : —
. ab exploratiribus certior factus est (B. G. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in
person). But, —
per exploratérés Caesar certior factus est (id. i. 12), Cesar was informed by
(means of) scouts.
élautae opera Neptini (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by theservices of Neptune.
non meA opera événit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn’t happened through me (by my
exertions). [Cf. éius opera, B. G. v. 27.]
pr three
254 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 405-407
Norr 1.— The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the abla.
tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as,—haec excubitoribus tenébantur
(B. G. vii. 69), these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.
Norr 2.— An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, some-
times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur: —
equd vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equé.]
clipeds 4 miiribus esse dérdsds (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374.
Ablative of Comparison
406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Abla-
tive! signifying than : —
Cato est Cicerdne Gloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.
quid ndbis dudbus laboridsius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than
we two?
vilius argentum est aur6, virtitibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), silver is less
precious than gold, gold than virtue.
a. The idiomatic ablatives opiniéne, spé, solitd, dictd, aequé, crédi-
bili, and iiistd are used after comparatives instead of a clause : —
celerius opiniéne (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think.
sérius spé omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all).
amnis solité citatior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifter than its wont.
gravius aequo (Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.
407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case:
non callidior es quam hic (Rosc. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
contidnibus accommodatior est quam iddiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assem-
blies than for courts.
misericordia dignior quam contumélia (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than of
disgrace.
a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the
things'compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NotrE 1.— There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison,
even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus
the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement
with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as, —senex est ed melidre condicidne quam adulés-
céns (Cat. M. 68), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man ;
and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as, —minor
fuit aliquanté is qui primus fabulam dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first
presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.
1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything
is compared is the starting-point /70m which we reckon. Thus, ‘‘ Cicero is eloquent” ;
but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is *‘ more so than he.”
§ 407] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 255
Nore 2.—The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose
construction requires quam: as,— pane eged iam mellitis potidre placentis (Hor. Ep.
i. 10. 11), I now want bread better than honey-cakes.
Norte 3.— Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this
construction, but always the ablative: as,—réx erat Aenéas nobis, qué iistior alter
nec, etc. (Aen. i. 544), Hneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.
b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the
ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first
member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative : —
nihil détestabilius dédecore, nihil foedius servitiite (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is
more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
néminem esse caridrem té (Att. x. 8. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
c. After the comparatives pliis, minus, amplius, longius, without
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in
its case : —
pliis septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than seven hundred were taken.
[Nominative. ]
pliis tertia parte interfecta (B. G. iii. 6), more than a third part being slain.
[Ablative Absolute. }
aditus in latitidinem nén amplius ducentérum pedum relinquébatur (id. ii.
29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left.
[Genitive of Measure: § 345. b.]
Norsr.— The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the
comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: ‘‘ seven hundred were taken [and] more.”’
d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo-
quial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely
by nisi, quam : —
nec quicquam aliud libertate commini (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the com-
mon liberty.
alius L¥sippd (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), another than Lysippus.
num aliud vidétur esse ac medrum bonérum direptid (Dom. 51), does it seem
anything different from the plundering of my property?
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium cdnfectid (De Or. ii. 52), history was
nothing else but a compiling of records.
e. The comparative of anadverb is usually followed by quam, rarely
by the ablative except in poetry : —
tempus té citius quam Gratid déficeret (Rosc. Am. 89), time would Fail you
sooner than words. But, —
cur olivum sanguine viperinéd cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun
oil more carefully than viper’s blood ?
Nors.— Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supra) are
sometimes used with a comparative: as,—scelere ante alids immanior omnis (Aen. i.
347), more monstrous in crime than all other men.
256 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 408, 409
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL
408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instru-
mental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a prepo-
sition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line
can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have
thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus Orabant, they entreated with
every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished
from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument
of an action: —
certantés piignis, calcibus, unguibus, morsi dénique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting
with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum piignis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pum-
melled with their fists and heels.
meis labéribus interiti rem piblicam liberavi (Sull. 33), by my toils I have
saved the state from ruin.
multae istarum arborum mea mani sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those
trees were set out with my own hands.
vi victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtiite audacia est (Mil. 30), violence was
overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of
filling, abounding, and the like : —
Deus bonis omnibus explévit mundum hen 3), God has filled the world with
all good things.
aggere et cratibus fossis explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up ‘the ditches with
earth and fascines.
totum montem hominibus complévit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain
with men.
opimus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils.
vita pléna et conferta voluptatibus (Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights.
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. S. i. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with
bargemen.
Norts.—In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleé and implied
sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. § 356); so regularly plénus and (with personal
nouns) complétus and refertus (§ 349. a): —
omnia pléna lictiis et maeroris fuérunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief
and mourning.
Ollam dénaridrum implére (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently
colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
conyiyium vicindrum compled (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the ban-
quet with my neighbors.
cum complétus mercatorum carcer esset (Verr. y. 147), when the prison was full of
traders.
§§ 410,411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 257
410. The deponents itor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several
of their compounds,' govern the Ablative : —
titar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), I will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salva ré piblicd vObiscum perfrui liceat (Cat. iv. 11), 80 may I enjoy
with you the state secure and prosperous.
fungi inani minere (Aen. vi. 885), to perform an idle service.
aurd hérés potitur (Ov. M. vii. 156), the hero takes the gold.
lacte et ferinad carne vescébantur (Iug. 89), they fed on milk and game.
Norr.— This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are
really in the middle voice (§ 156.@). Thus ttor with the ablative signifies I employ
myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared
from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase
potiri rérum, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 357. a): —
totius Galliae sésé potiri posse spérant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get
possession of the whole of Gaul.
Note 1.—In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the
accusative : —
fiinctus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, ete.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.
Notr 2.— The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the
verb were transitive (but cf. § 500. 3): as, — Héraclid omnia itenda ac possidenda tra-
diderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and posses-
sion (to be used and possessed).
411. Opus and isus, signifying need, take the Ablative:—?
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates.
nune viribus iisus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.
Notr. — The ablative with tisus is not common in classic prose.
a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found,
either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun : —
opus est tua exprémpta malitia atque astitia (Ter. And. 723), I must have
your best cunning ard cleverness set to work.
properatd opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
Nore 1.—So rarely with iisus in comedy: as,— quid istis isust cOnscriptis (PI. .
Bacch. 749), what’s the good of having them in writing ?
Nore 2.— The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as, — quid
opus factdst (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with quo
facto opus est ?] ;
1 These are abiitor, deiitor (very rare), défungor, défruor, perfruor, perfungor.
2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and asus mean
work and service, and the abla‘ive expresses that with which the work is performed
or the service rendered. The noun isus follows the analogy of the verb itor, and the
ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with sus est,
258 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 411-413
b. Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in
the nominative as subject: —
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6. 4), we need a chief and responsible
adviser’ (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).
si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any-
thing should be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 8), things which are required.
Ablative of Manner
412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative ; usu-
ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun:
cum celeritate vénit, he came with speed. But, —
summa celeritate vénit, he came with the greatest speed.
quid réfert qua mé ratidne cogatis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in
what way you compel me ?
a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting
adjective : —
quanto id cum periculd fécerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this.
non mindre cum taedid recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no less
weariness.
6. With such words of manner as modo, pact6, ratidne, ritii, vi, via,
and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as
silenti6, ifire, iniiiria), cum is not used : —
apis Matinae more moddque carmina fingd (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style
and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.
Norsr.—So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, — iInsequitur cu-
mulé aquae mons (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure
(id. i. 124); rimis (id. i. 123).]
Ablative of Accompaniment
413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with
cum : —
cum coniugibus ac liberis (Att. viii. 2. 3), with wives and children.
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flimen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19), having
crossed the river with the archers and slingers.
quae supplicatid si cum céteris cOnferatur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving
be compared with others.
quae [léx] esse cum télé vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go
armed (be with a weapon).
Si sécum suds édiixerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates.
[For sécum, see § 144. b. n.1.]
§§ 413, 414] ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE 259
a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and
here and there by early writers : —
subsequébatur omnibus cépiis (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his
forces. [But also cum omnibus cdpiis, id. i. 26.}
hoc praesidid profectus est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set out.
Nore. — Misced and iungo, with some of their compounds, and cénfundé take either
(1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative
(mostly poetical or late) : —
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain.
ciius animum cum sud misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.
flétumque crudri miscuit (Ov. M. iy. 140), and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar eas cohortis cum exerciti sud coniiinxit (B. C. i. 18), Cesar united those
cohorts with his own army.
aér coniinctus terris (Lucr. v. 562), air united with earth.
hiiman6 capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head
a horse’s neck. :
b. Words of Contention and the like require cum : —
armis cum hoste certare (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter haec cum Q. Catuld disputarem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss
these matters with Quintus Catulus.
Norte. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison ii
ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : —
quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.
& milibus passuum circiter dudbus (B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two
miles. [For 4 as an adverb, see § 433. 3.]
aliquot ante annis (Tusc. i. 4), several years before.
aliquantd post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up.
multé mé vigilaire dcrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply.
nihilé erat ipse Cycléps quam ariés pridentior (Tusc. v. 115), the Cyclops
himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
a. The ablatives qué... ed (hic), and quantd.. . tantd, are used
correlatively with comparatives, like the English the... the?:—
qué minus cupiditatis, ed plis auctdritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the
more weight (by what the less, by that the more).
quanto erat gravior oppignati6, tantd crébridrés litterae mittébantur (B. G.
v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.
1In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the
Anglo-Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thxt, that. This pronoun is
used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so
much). Thus the... the corresponds exactly to qué. . . e. Te ’
260 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 414, 415
Notr.— To this construction are doubtless to be referred all eases of qud and e
(hdc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree
of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause: —
edque mé minus paenitet (N. D.i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so
much the less I regret).
haec e6 facilius faciébant, quod (B. G. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for this
reason, because, etc. [Cf. héc maibre spé, quod (id. iii. 9).]
b. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree
of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective : —
paulé minus ducentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred.
patria, quae mihi vita me& multé est carior (Cat. i. 27), my country, which
is much dearer to me than life.
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an
adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : —1
anim6 melidre sunt gladiatorés (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better
mind.
quae cum esset civitas aequissimé iiire ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a
city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
mulierem eximia pulchritidine (Verr. ii. 1. 64), a woman of rare beauty.
Aristotelés, vir summ6 ingenié, scientia, cdpia (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of
the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
dé Domitid dixit versum Graecum eddem sententia (Deiot. 25), concerning
Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
Nors.— The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345) modifies a sub-
stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either
attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent
to adverbs.
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may
often be used indifferently ; but physical qualities are oftener denoted
by the Ablative (cf. § 345. n.):—
capillé sunt prémissé (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair.
ut capite operté sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered
head).
quam fuit inbécillus P. Africani filius, quam tenui aut nalla potius valétidine
(id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or
rather none at all!
1 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompani-
ment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412).
§§ 416, 417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261
Ablative of Price
416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative : —
agrum véndidit séstertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
Antdnius régna addixit peciinia (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for money.
logés ridiculds: quis céna poscit (Pl. Stich. 221), jokes: who wants them for
(at the price of) a dinner?
magn6 illi ea ciinctatid stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.
Norse. — To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1).
417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to
denote indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pliris,
min6ris : —
mea magni interest, it is of great consequence te me.
illud parvi réfert (Manil. 18), this is of small account.
est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so much).
Verrésne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verres of 80 much account to
you?
tantdne minéris decumae véniérunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so
much less ?
ut té redimas captum quam queds minim6 : si nequeds paululd, at quanti queds
(Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate
you can; if you can’t for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
Nore. — These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. 6).
a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi-
nite value. Such are nihili (nili), nothing; a assis, a farthing (rare) ;
flocci (a lock of wool), a straw : —
non flocci facid (Att. xiii. 50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]
utinam ego istuc abs té factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), O that I cared
nothing for this being done by you! [Colloquial.]
b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mfitd,
commiutd, permitd, vertd : —
fidem suam et religisnem peciinid commitare (Clu. 129), to barter his faith
and conscience for money.
exsilium patria séde miitavit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), he exchanged his native land
for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
véléx saepe Lucrétilem mitat Lycaed Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble
Faunus often changes Lyceus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at
the price of Lyceus, i.e. he goes from Lyceus to Lucretilis. ]
vertere fineribus triumphis (id. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral
train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]
262 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 417, 418
Nore. — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different con-
ception of the action: as, —ariés . . . cum croced mutabit vellera lito (Ecl.-iv. 44), the
ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yeilow sagrron.
c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pliris, mindris : —
quanti eam émit? vili. .. quot minis? quadraginta minis (Pl. Epid. 51),
what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many mine? Forty.
Ablative of Specification
418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to
which anything 7s or is done : —
virtite praecédunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage.
claudus alterd pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.
lingua haesitantés, vice absoni (De Or. i. 115), hesitating in speech, harsh in
voice.
sunt enim hominés non ré sed ndmine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not in
fact, but in name.
maior nati, older; minor nati, younger (cf. § 181. c).
paulum aetate progressi (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, animé numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man
in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla-
tive expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done: —
' me6 iiire, with perfect right ; but, med modd, in my fashion.
mea sententia, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia.
[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative’is specification, the
second source. }
propinquitate coniiinctés atque natira (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and
nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above,
but no doubt is a development of means. }
qui vincit viribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible
to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect
to which one is superior. ]
Notr.— As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to
classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instru-
mental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and
cause.
For the Supine in -i' as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.
b. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative : —
vir patre, avd, maidribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
té omni honére indignissimum iddicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely
unworthy of every honor.
§§ 418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 2638
Note 1.— So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose: as, — haud equidem tali mé
dignor honore (Aen. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.
Nore 2. — Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and
in poetry : —
ciram dignissimam tuae virtitis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of
your noble character.
dignus salitis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.
magnérum haud umquam indignus avorum (Aen. xii. 649), never unworthy of my
great ancestors.
Ablative Absolute
419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may
be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an
action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute: —}
Caesar, acceptis litteris, nintium mittit (B. G. v. 46), having received the
letter, Cesar sends a messenger (the letter having been received).
quibus rébus codgnitis Caesar apud milités cdntidnatur (B. C. i. 7), having
learned this, Cesar makes a speech to the soldiers.
fugatd omni equitati (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight.
interfectd Inditiomaré (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
nodndum hieme confecta in finis Nervidrum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the
winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.
compressi [sunt] cdnatiis nilld tumulti piiblicé concitatd (Cat. i. 11), the
attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
né vobis quidem omnibus ré etiam tum probata (id. ii. 4), since at that time
the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.
Notr. —The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is,
however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name
absolute (absolitus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute
very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti-
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : —?
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum-
mer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domitid Ap. Claudid cénsulibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Domi-
tius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being]
consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § ee g-]
nil déspérandum Teucré duce et auspice Teucrd (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), there
should be no despair under Teucer’s leadership and fini (Teucer
being leader, etc.).
1The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some-
times explained as an outgrowth of the Jocative, and in any event certain locative
constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.
2 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and
Greek as in English.
264 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES _ [§§ 419, 420
b. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as
ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective : —
incertd quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain what they should
aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
compertd vinum esse formidinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), when it was found that
the alarm was groundless.
cir praetereatur démonstrato (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omitting it has
been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
Nore. — This construction is very rare except in later Latin.
c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in
the ablative absolute without a substantive : —
cdnsultd (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on).
mihi optatd véneris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you will come in accordance with my
wish. .
seréno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear).
nec auspicaté nec litatéd (id. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.
tranquilld, ut fiunt, quilibet gubernator est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good
weather, as they say, any man’s a pilot.
420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub-
ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace —
1, A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.):—
patre interfecto, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum
pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed. |
recentibus sceleris €ius vestigiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime
were fresh. [Cf. dum recentia sunt vestigia. ]
2. A Causal Clause (§ 540) : —
‘at el qui Alesiae obsidébantur praeterita dié qua auxilia sudrum exspectd-
verant, cinsimptd omni frimenté, concilid coact6 cénsultabant (B. G.
vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc.,
had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5
below), consulted together. [Cf. cum diés praeterisset, etc. ]
Daréus, déspérata pace, ad reparandas viris intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1),
Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting
his forces. [Cf. cum pacem déspéraret. ]
3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527): —
at e6 repiignante fiébat (cdnsul), immo véré ed fiébat magis (Mil. 34), but
though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul ;
nay, rather, etc.
turribus excitatis, tamen has altitidd puppium ex barbaris navibus supe-
rabat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high
sterns of the enemy’s ships rose above them.
§§ 420-422] ABLATIVE OF PLACE 265
4, A Conditional Clause (§ 521):—
occurrébat ei, mancam et débilem praetiiram futiiram suam, cénsule Milone
(Mil. 25), i# occurred to him that his pretorship would be maimed and
feeble, if Milo were consul. [si Mild cénsul esset. }
qua (regidne) subacta licébit décurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 18), ¢f this
region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.
qua quidem détracta (Arch. 28), if this be taken away.
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance : —
ego haec 4 Chrysogond mea sponte, rem6td Sex. Riscid, quaerd (Rosc. Am.
130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus
Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente domin6 (Mil. 29), without their master’s
giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.
Norse. — As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Abla-
tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with
when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle.
These changes may be seen in the following example: —
At ill, intermisso spatio, imprudenti-
bus nostris atque occupatis in minitione
castrérum, subité sé ex silvis éiécérunt ;
impetuque in eds factd qui erant in sta-
tidne pro castris conlocati, acriter piig-
navérunt; duabusque missis subsidid
cohortibus 4 Caesare, cum hae (perexi-
guo intermisso loci spatid inter sé) con-
stitissent, novd genere piignae perterritis
nostris, per medids audacissimé perriipé-
runt séque inde incolumis recéperunt.—
CAESAR, B. G. v. 15.
But they, having paused a space, while
our men were unaware and busied in for-
tifying the camp, suddenly threw them-
selves out of the woods; then, making an
attack upon those who were on guard in
front of the camp, they fought fiercely ;
and, though two cohorts had been sent by
Cesar as reinforcements, after these had
taken their position (leaving very little
space of ground between them), as our
men were alarmed by the strange kind
of fighting, they dashed most daringly
through the midst of them and got off
safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220.
THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE
Ablative of Place
421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where
and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place).
But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the
place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was,
no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in
most instances with the preposition in.
422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a
variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loe-
ative), which are systematically treated in § 428 ff.
266 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 423, 424
TIME AND PLACE
Time
423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Abla-
tive; time how long by the Accusative.
1. Ablative : —
constitita dié, on the appointed day ; prima lice, at daybreak.
quota hira, at what o’clock? tertia vigilia, in the third watch.
tribus proximis annis (Iug. 11), within the last three years.
diébus viginti quinque aggerem exstriixérunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty-
Jive days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative : —
diés continuds triginta, for thirty days together.
cum triduum iter fécisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days.
Norsr. — The Ablative of Time is /ocative in its origin (§ 421) ; the Accusative is the
same as that of the extent of space (§ 425).
424, Special constructions of time are the following : —
a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the
Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision : —
in diébus proximis decem (Iug. 28), within the neat ten days.
liidi per decem diés (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days.
b. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative :—
milités quinque héris proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus.
tained the fight five hours.
Nors. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is
done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annds
quattuordecim (B. G. i. 36), for fourteen years.
c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the
Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal
numeral : —
quintd dié, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans
counted both ends, see § 631. d.]
régnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.
d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when,
where in English the main idea is rather of place : —
piigna Cannénsi (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at Canne.
ladis R6manis, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the Gallic wars.
§§ 424, 45] TIME AND PLACE 267
e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad,
in, or sub is used. Such are the following: —
supplicatid décréta est in Kalendas Ianuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for
the first of January.
convénérunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day.
ad vesperum, fill evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening.
sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.
f. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed:
post (ante) trés annds, post tertium annum, trés post annds, tertium post
annum, tribus post annis, tertid post anno (§ 414), three years after.
tribus annis (tertid ann6) post exsilium (postquam Géiectus est), three years
after his exile.
his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years.
paucis annis, a few years hence.
abhinc annds trés (tribus annis), ante hés trés ann6s, three years ago.
triennium est cum (trés anni sunt cum), i is three years since.
octavo ménse quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. N.).
g- In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative
absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. @):—
is diés erata. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quintum Kalendas Aprilis) L. Piséne A. Gabinio
consulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the 5th before the calends of April
(March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the 5th day before the calends of November
(Oct. 28).
xv. Kal. Sextilis, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full
form: quintd decimo dié ante Kalendas. |
For the Roman Calendar, see § 631.
Extent of Space
425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative : —
fossis quindecim pedés latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches fifteen feet broad.
progressus milia passuuni circiter duodecim (id. v. 9), having advanced about
twelve miles.
in omni vita su& quemque 4 récta conscientia transversum unguem non
oportet discédere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one’s life, one should
not depart a nail’s breadth from straightforward conscience.
Nors. — This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes
place, and is kindred -with the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2).
268 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES _[§§ 425, 426
a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 345. 6):
vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve feet (in height).
b. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu-
sative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative
(§ 414): —
milia passuum tria ab edrum castris castra ponit (B. G. i. 22), he pitches his
camp three miles from their camp.
quinque diérum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days’ march.
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below
that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
426. Relations of Place! are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, dé, or ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
Examples are : —
1. Place from which : —
a septentrione, from the north.
cum 4 vobis discesser6 (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you.
dé provincia décédere, to come away from one’s province.
dé monte, down from the mountain.
negotiator ex Africa (Verr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa.
ex Britannia obsidés misérunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain.
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in
the Vosges mountains.
2. Place to which (end of motion) : —
nocte ad Nervids pervénérunt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to the Nervii.
adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.
in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy.
légdtum in Treverés mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into the
{country of the] Treveri.
1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative,
in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion; the ablative, in its proper
meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the
place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define
more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long asso-
ciation became indispensable except as indicated below.
ee
§§ 426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269
3. Place where : —
in hac urbe vitam dégit, he passed his life in this city.
si in Gallia remanérent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul.
dum haec in Venetis geruntur (id. iii. 17), while this was going on among the
Veneti.
oppidum in insula positum (id. vii. 58), a town situated on an island.
427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus
and ris, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows: —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative.*
Examples are : —
1. Place from which : —
Roma profectus, having set out from Rome; Rima abesse, to be absent from
Rome.
dom6 abire, to leave home ; rire reversus, having returned from the country.
2. Place to which :—
cum Rodmam sexté dié Mutina vénisset (Fam. xi. 6. 1), when he had come to
Rome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).
Dél6 Rhodum navigiare, to sail from Delos to Rhodes.
ris ibd, I shall go into the country.
domum iit, he went home.” [So, suds domds abire, to go to their homes. |
3. Place where (or at which) : —
Romae, at Rome (Roma). Athénis, at Athens (Athénae).
Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rhodus). Lanuvi, at Lanuvium.
Sami, at Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus.
Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Ciribus, at Cures.
Philippis, at Philippi. Capreis, at Capri (Capreae).
domi (rarely domui), at home. rari, in the country.
a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns,
which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition : —
belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service.
humi, on the ground. vesperi (-e), in the evening.
foris, out of doors. animi (see § 358).
heri (-e), yesterday. temperi, betimes.
Cf. infélici arbori (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marique,
by land and sea.
1 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form
as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative
or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)
2 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old aceusative of the
end of motion.
270 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 428
428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are
the following : —
a. With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to
denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighbor-
hood of : —
ut 4 Mutina discéderet (Phil. xiv. 4), that he should retire from Modena
(which he was besieging).
erat 4 Gergovia déspectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about
Gergovia a view into the camp.
ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia.
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor-
hood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium vénit (B. C. iii. 100), Decimus Lelius
came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
b. The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition
to express the place from which, to which, or where : —
ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city.
ad urbem, to the city. Romae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. Roma ex urbe, from the city of Rome.
ad urbem Rémam (Rémam ad urbem), to the city of Rome.
c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders ; in with
the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away
from the outside ; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad Italiam pervénit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of
the destination ; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome,
for instance.
So ab Italia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regard-
less of the original starting-point ; ex Italia, he came from Italy, from within, as
from Rome, for instance. :
d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed
by ad or apud with the accusative.
piigna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae.
conchas ad Caiétam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore).
ad (apud) inferés, in the world below (near, or among, those below).
ad foris, at the doors. ad idnuam, at the door.
Norr 1.—TIn the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the accusative;
among, by apud with the accusative : —
apud Graecis, among the Greeks. apud mé, at my house.
apud Solénsis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. —_circi Capuam, round about Capua.
Nore 2.—In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work,
in. Thus,—apud Xenophdntem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophidntis Oeconomicd, in
Xenophon’s Giconomicus.
§ 428] RELATIONS OF PLACE 271
e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and
not as a locality, are treated like names of countries : —
in Sicilia, in Sicily.
in Ithaca leporés illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when
carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae. ]
f. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place
from which in certain idiomatic expressions : —
cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he would have left his country.
patria pellere, to drive out of the country.
mani mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
g- The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the
place from which 01 to which when it would be required in classical
prose : —
manis Acheronte remissds (Aen. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron.
Scythia profecti (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting out from Scythia.
Italiam Laviniaque vénit litora (Aen. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian
shores.
terram Hesperiam veniés (id. ii. 781), you shall come to the Hesperian land.
Aegyptum proficiscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt.
h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative,
occasionally also in later prose : —
it clamor caeld (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky.
facilis déscénsus Averné (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avernus.
diadéma capiti repdnere iussit (Val. Max. v. 1. 9), he ordered him to put back
the diadem on his head.
4. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and
in the following old phrases: —
exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. infitias ire, to resort to denial.
pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdd).
vénum dare, fo sell (give to sale). [Hence véndere. ]
vénum Ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence vénire. ]
fords (used as adverb), out: as, — fords égredi, to go out of doors.
suppetias advenire, to come to one’s assistance.
j. When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion,
each must be under its own construction : —
quadridusé qué haec gesta sunt rés ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Vola-
terras défertur (Rosc. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the
matter was reported tro Chrysogonus 1n Sulla’s camp at Volaterre.
Norr.— The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when
motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see x, n.).
272 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [$§ 428, 429
k. Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domi, may
be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive : —
domum régis (Deiot. 17), to the king’s house. [But also in M. Laecae domum
(Cat. i. 8), to Marcus Leca’s house. }
domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Cesar’s house.
domi suae vel aliénae, at his own or another’s house.
Nors. — At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in
domum or in dom is used: —
in domum privatam conveniunt (Tac. H.iv. 55), they come togetherin a privatehouse.
in Marci Crassi castissima dom6 (Cael. 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus.
(Cf. ex Anniana Milonis domé, § 302. e.]
429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a
preposition in the following instances : —
1. Often in indefinite words, such as locé, parte, etc. : —
quibus locé positis (De Or. iii. 155), when these are set in position.
qua parte belli vicerant (Liv. xxi. 22), the branch of warfare in which they
were victorious.
locis certis horrea cénstituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par-
ticular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu-
larly when totus is used) : —
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
t6ta Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina.
ctincté Asia atque Graecia (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and
Greece too.
3. Inmany idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:
pendémus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds).
socius periculis vObiscum ader6 (Iug. 85. 47), I will be present with you, a
companion in dangers.
4, Freely in poetry : —
litore curv6 (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore.
antro sécliisa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
Epiré, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
premit altum corde dolérem (id. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
a. The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
via brevidre equités praemisi (Fam. x. 9), I sent forward the cavalry by a
shorter road.
Aegae6 mari traiécit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he erossed by way of the 4igean Sea.
provehimur pelagé (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea.
NotTE. — In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage.
§§ 429-431] RELATIONS OF PLACE 273
b. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely
ex), properly meaning from:—?*
4 tergo, in the rear; 4 sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hine, on this side.]
& parte Pompéiana, on the side of Pompey.
ex altera parte, on the other side.
magna ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).
430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the con-
struction of the place where : —
Such are pond, locd, collocd, status, cdnstitud, etc. : —
qui in séde ac domé collocdvit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and
home.
statuitur eques ROmanus in Aprodni convivid (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman knight
is brought into a banquet of Apronius.
insula Délos in Aegaed mari posita (Manil. 55), the island of Delos, situated in
the 4igean Sea.
si in ind Pompéid omnia pdnerétis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on
Pompey alone.
Notr.— Compounds of péné take various constructions (see the Lexicon under
each word).
431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquiéscé, délector, laetor, gauded, glorior, nitor, std, maned,
fidd, cinfid6, cOnsistd, contineor.
ndminibus veterum gloriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients.
[Also, dé divitiis (in virtiite, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriari.]
spé niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope.
pridentia fidéns (Off. i. 81), trusting in prudence.
Norr.— The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but
fid5 in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, —in quibus
causa nititur (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends.
With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For
fidd and cédnfidé with the Dative, see § 367.
a. The verbals frétus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla-
tive : —
frétus gratia Briiti (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause. ]
noén fuit contentus gloria (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory.
Nore. —So intentus, rarely: as,— aliqué negotid intentus (Sall. Cat. 2), intent
on some occupation.
1 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.
274 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 482
2 SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS!
Adverbs and Prepositions
432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as
Prepositions : —
a. The adverbs pridié, postridié, propius, proximé, less frequently the
adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative :—
pridié Nonas Maids (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see § 631).
postridié lidds (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games.
propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger.
propior montem (Iug. 49), nearer the hill.
proximus mare dceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean.
Norr. — Pridié and postridié take also the Genitive (§ 359. b). Propior, propius, proxi-
mus, and proximé, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab: —
propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther-
mopyle.
Sugambri qui sunt proximi Rhén6 (B. G. vi. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest
to the Rhine.
proximus 4 postrémo (Or. 217), next to the last.
b. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative, but fisque ad is much
more common : —
terminis iisque Libyae (Iust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya.
iisque ad castra hostium (B. G. i. 51), to the enemy’s camp.
c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions
and take the Ablative: —
rem créditéri palam populé solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt to his creditor
in the presence of the people.
haud procul castris in modum minicipi exstriicta (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far
From the camp, built up like a town.
simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells the
barbarian.
Nortr. — But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by ab in classic
writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative,
also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the
Ablative : —
clam matrem suam (Pl. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother.
clam patris (id. Merc. 48), without his father’s knowledge.
clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge.
. 1 For a list. of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see § 221.
§§ 433-435] ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS 275
433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad-
verbs : —
1. Ante and post in relations of time : —
quds pauld ante diximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago.
post tribus diébus, three days after (cf. § 424. f).
2. Adversus, circiter, prope : —
ném6 adversus ibat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition.
circiter pars quarta (Sall. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless.
3. A or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of
Degree of Difference (§ 414) : —
a4 milibus passuum circiter duébus Réméndrum adventum exspectabant
(B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they
awaited the approach of the Romans.
4, In general, prepositions ending in -4: —
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), thus olus in reply.
forte fuit iixta tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to be a mound close by.
434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated
by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, posted, pridié, postridié; also magis
and prae in compounds : —
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him
go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.
Cato ipse iam servire quam pignare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this
time had rather be a slave than fight.
Gallérum quam R6man6rum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), [they] prefer the
rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
Notr.—The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way
(§ 424. f): as, —octavd ménse quam (Liy. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc.
435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their
nouns: ad, citra, circum, contra, dé, é (ex), inter, ifixté, penes, propter,
ultra; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others : —
[aisus] quem penes arbitrium est et iis et norma loquendi (Hor. A. P. 72),
custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
cfiius 4 mé corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab ill6 meum (Cat. M.
84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary
(contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.
276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§ 436
SYNTAX OF THE VERB
MOODS AND TENSES
436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express
the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of
the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense; and hence the
uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have
modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 517. c; future for imperative,
§ 449. b); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future con-
ditions, § 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with
modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina-
tions, -4-m, -4-s, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -é-m, -é-s, in the present
(amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem). The Optative was formed by i€-,i-, with the
present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dixerim). (See details in §§ 168, 169.)
Each mood has two general classes or. ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub-
junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action
vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and
of action vaguely conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub-
junctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possi-
bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from
more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this
process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after-
wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have
taken place in English. Thus, the expression J would do this has become equivalent
to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi-
tion contrary to fact (§ 517): if I were you, ete. By further analysis, I wowld do is
seen to have meant, originally, I should have wished (or I did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning
and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then
new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed, and to these the original as well as
the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438). All the independent
uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some
independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre-
quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as
a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a
general negative (quin rogem? why showd n’t I ask?) might have the general nega-
tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nilla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abeat,
let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes
into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis-
appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit 1égat6s qui dicerent,
he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the
subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose.
Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opinidnem,
lictum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you
remove, etc.).
1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169.
—
§§ 436, 437] INDICATIVE MOOD 27T
The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (§ 451), modifying a verb like other nouns:
vold vidére, lit. ‘‘ I wish for-seeing’’: compare English ‘‘ what went ye out for to see?”’
But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some
proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various
ways, which are treated under their respective heads below.
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified : —
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§ 437).
1. Exhortation or Command (§ 439).
2. Concession (§ 440).
. Wish (§ 441).
. Question of Doubt ete. (§ 444).
. Possibility or Contingency (§ 446).
Bh Future (less vivid) (§ 516. b,c).
= CRIM { Contrary to Fact (§ 517).
Purpose (with ut, né) (§ 531).
. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§ 535).
. Result (with ut, ut non) (§ 537).
. Time (with cum) (§ 546).
. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§ 592).
. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574,
\ 588).
. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§ 448).
. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§ 449. 2).
. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a).
. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454).
. Objective ( 1. Complementary Infinitive (§ 456).
, a. Independent
Uses:
‘
ARDAPRwWH SB HR oO
II. Subjunctive: ;
b. Dependent
Uses:
III. Imperative: |
la
on WHE
Construc- { 2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative)
IV. Infinitive: tions: (§ 580).
1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§ 460).
. Idiomatic
4 Uses:
oO
2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative)
(§ 462).
3. Historical Infinitive (§ 463).
4@ MOODS
& INDICATIVE MOOD
437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques-
tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that
of time.
a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom
would suggest the Subjunctive : —
longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been bet-
ter [if, etc.];.persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail].
Nore. — Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§ 463), and
(2) the Infinitive in Fadirect Discourse (§ 580).
For the Indicative in Conditions, see §§ 515, 516; for the Indicative in implied Com-
mands, see § 449. b.
278 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 438, 439
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with
some modification! such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries,
by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. 6).
a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express —
1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: § 439).
2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive: § 440).
8. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive: § 441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive: § 444).
5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive : "§ 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apo
b. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clau
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. b,
2. Purpose (Final, § 531).
3. Characteristic (§ 535).
4, Result (Consecutive, § 537).
Time (Temporal, § 546).
ct Question (§ 574).
junctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com.
4), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse
Ce
parison (§
(§ 580).
SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT
Hortatory Subjunctive
439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense
to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is né.
hos latrénés interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let ws kill these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verécundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun
excess and cherish modesty.
Nore 1.— The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro-
hibitions: § 450): as, — Epiciirus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurus look to this.
Norsr 2.— The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first per-
son plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive ;
but the constructions are substantially identical.
1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special
development (cf. § 436). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in
clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all,
but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of
the action and has developed the construction differently from the English.
§§ 439, 440] HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE 279
Note 3.— Once in Cicero and occasionally i in the poets and later writers the nega-
tive with the hortatory subjunctive is non: as, — a légibus non recédamus (Clu. 155), let
us not abandon the laws.
a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only
of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in
poetry :—
iniirias fortinae, quas ferre nequeas, défugiendd relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the
wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight.
exoriare aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, some avenger.
istd bond itare dum adsit, cum absit né requiras (Cat. M. 33), use this bless-
ing while it is present ; when it is wanting do not regret it.
doceds iter et sacra Ostia pandas (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay epen
the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see § 450.
6. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive
denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time : —
morerétur, inquiés (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say.
potius docéret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have taught.
né poposcissés (Att. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked.
saltem aliquid dé pondere détraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the weight.
Nore 1.—In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the finpeetect
ly in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
Nore 2.—This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the
use (§ 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought
440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conces-
sion.1 ‘The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past.
The negative is né.
sit fiir, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperater (Verr. v. 4), grant he is a
thief, a godless wretch: yet he is a good general.
fuerit aliis ; tibi quand6 esse coepit (Verr, di. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to
others ; when did he begin to be to you?
ném6 is umquam fuit: né fuerit (Or. vk be never was such a one [you
will say]: granted (let there not have been).
né sit summum malum dolor, malum cert€.est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that
pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil.
Norr.— The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory
(§ 527. a, b).
For other methods of expressing Concession, see § 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a.
1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative
Subjunctive in a wish.
~
=
aay se :
. betro, 4
280 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 441, 442
Optative Subjunctive
441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The
present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as wnac-
complished in present time, the pluperfect as wnaccomplished in
past time. The negative is né: —
ita vivam (Att. v. 15), as true as I live, so may I live.
ne vivam si sci6 (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know.
di té perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant civés mei; sint incolumés (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my
Sellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm.
di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me
to be without a father (but they do not)!
a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic : —
di faxint (Fam. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant.
quod di 6men 4verterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the
gods avert this omen.
442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par-
ticle utinam; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect : —
falsus utinam vatés sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet.
utinam Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.
utinam mé mortuum vidissés (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead.
utinam né véré scriberem (Fam. y. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the
truth.
Norsz.— Utinam non is occasionally used instead of utinam né; as, —utinam sus-
ceptus non essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been born.
a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative
subjunctive; and in poetry si or 6 si with the subjunctive sometimes
expresses a wish : —
ut pereat positum rébigine télum (Hor. S. ii. 1. 48), may the weapon unused
perish with rust.
6 si angulus ille accédat (id. ii. 6. 8), O if that corner might only be added !
si nunc sé nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden
branch would only show itself to us !
Nore 1.—The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative,
meaning how may J, etc. (§ 444). The subjunctive with si or 6 si is a protasis (§ 512. a),
the apodosis not being expressed.
NotE 2.— The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper-
fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 585): as, —ac
venerata Cerés, ita culmé surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with
libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [In addressing the goddess directly
the prayer would be: ita surgas.]
§§ 442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281
6. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : —
velim tibi persuadeds (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I
should wish that you would persuade yourself).
dé Menedém6 vellem vérum fuisset, dé régina velim vérum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4), .
about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come.
mallem Cerberum metuerés (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).
Norr.— Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with
the protasis omitted (§ 447.1.N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive
clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. n.1).
Deliberative Subjunctive
443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when
the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed.
The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by
the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infre-
quently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning
of the Potential (see § 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative
or Dubitative.
444, ‘The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt,
indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing’s being done.
The negative is non.
quid agam, ifidicés? qué mé vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges?
whither shall I turn ?
etiamne eam saliitem (PL. Rud. 1275), shall I greet her?
ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you Wale
for his wantonness ?
an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come ?
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say ?
quis enim célaverit ignem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ?
Norer.— The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus,—quid
facidmus ?=faciamus [aliquid], quid? let us do—what? (Compare the expanded form
quid vis facidmus? what do you wish us todo?) Once established, it was readily trans-
ferred to the past: quid faciam? what am Ito do? quid facerem? what was I to do?
Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis
(ef. § 517).
a. In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation,
rejecting a suggested possibility :
mihi umquam bondrum praesidium défutiirum putarem (Mil. 94), could I
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me!
Norr. — The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions: as,— quid ag6,
what am I to do?
282 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 445-447
Potential Subjunctive
445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf.
§ 436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,! is found in a variety of sentence-forms
having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely
_ conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some
of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but
no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative
Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential
Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxil-
iaries would, should, may, might, can, could.
446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action
as possible or conceivable. The negative is non.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
the immediate future ; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past
time; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.
447, The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses: —
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of
expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect) : —
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave.
haud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think.
tii velim sic existimés (Fam. xii. 6), I should like you to think so.
certum affirmare n6n ausim (Liv. iii. 23), I should not dare to assert as sure.
Norr.— Vellem, ndllem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time
may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unex-
pressed condition (§ 521): as— vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish
Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think-
ing, and the like (present or imperfect) : —
crédas non dé puerd scriptum sed 4 puerd (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you would
think that it was written not about a boy but by a boy.
créderés victds (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered.
reds dicerés (id. ii. 35. 5), you would have said they were culprits.
vidérés susurrés (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit.
whispers).
fretd assimilare possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in
the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or
conceivable : —
1The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in
grammatical usage. .
§§ 447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 283
nil ego contulerim iticundd sanus amicd (Hor. S. i. 5. 44), when in my senses
I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.
fortiinam citius reperias quam retineds (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find
Sortune than keep it.
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.
Nore.—In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an unde-
veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in
a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
' a. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive
except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also
common : —
forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rosc. Am. 5), you may perhaps inquire
what this alarm is.
forsitan temeré fécerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.
Nortr.— The subjunctive clause with forsitan (— fors sit an) was originally an Indi-
rect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc.
b. Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; some-
times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin: —
quaerés fortasse (Fam. xv. 4. 18), perhaps you will ask.
Notr.— Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed
-with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and
poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit)
occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6.49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed
by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare; con-
strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are
also found.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties : —
consulite vobis, préspicite patriae, cOnservate vis (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for
yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves.
dic, Marce Tulli, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion.
té ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 3. 35), examine yourself.
vive, valéque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well)!
miserére animi non digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul bearing undeserved
misfortune.
a. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : —
ollis saliis populi supréma léx esté (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shall
be their first law. ‘
ifista imperia suntd, eisque civés modesté parenté (id. iii. 6), let there be law-
Sul authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
Nots. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439).
284 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§ 449
449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where
there is a distinct reference to future time : —
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi-
cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take
place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or
(in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative : —
cras petits, dabitur (Pl. Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.
cum valétidini consulueris, tum cénsulitd navigatidni (Fam. xvi. 4. 8), when
you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.
Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, Iolla ; cum faciam vitula pro frigibus,
ipse venitd (Ecl. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, Iollas;
when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
dic quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida sdlus habété (id. iii. 107), tell in what
lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes,
and Wills : —
is itiris civilis ciistds estd (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the praetor) be the guardian
of civil right.
Borea flante, né araté, semen né iacitd (Plin. H. N. xviii. 334), when the north
wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
a. The verbs sci6, memini, and habed (in the sense of consider’) regu-
larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : —
filiol6 mé auctum scitd (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habété, mi Tird (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
dé pallé mementd, amabd (Pl. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.
b. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ;
and quin (why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force
of a command : —
si quid acciderit novi, faciés ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me know if
anything new happens.
quin accipis (Ter. Haut. 852), here, take it (why not take it ?).
ce. Instead of the simple Imperative, ciiré ut, fac (fac ut), or velim,
followed by the subjunctive (§ 565), is often used, especially in col-
loquial language : —
ciira ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome.
fac ut valétiidinem ciirés (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health.
domi adsitis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do.
eum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521. b.
§ 450] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285
Prohibition (Negative Command)
450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by
ndli with the Infinitive, (2) by cavé with the Present Subjunctive,
or (3) by né with the Perfect Subjunctive ; —}
(1) ndli putare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).
noli impudéns esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don’t be shameless.
nolite cOgere socids (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies.
(2) cavé putés (Att. vii. 20), don’t suppose (take care lest you suppose).
cavé ignoscas (Lig. 14), do not pardon.
cavé festinés (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not be in haste.
(3) né necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary.
né sis admiratus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not be surprised.
hoc facitd; hdc né féceris (Div. ii. 127), thou shalt do this, thou shalt not do that.
né Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even.
né vos quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 98), nor must you fear death.
~
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first,
which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest; the third, though not discourteous, is
usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
NotE 1.—Instead of n6li the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar
meaning (cf. § 457. a): —
parce pias scelerare maniis (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
cétera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), forbear to say the rest.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire.
Note 2,— Cavé né is sometimes used in prohibitions; also vidé né and (colloquially)
facné: as, —fac né quid aliud cirés (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else.
Nore 3.—The present subjunctive with né and the perfect with cavé are found in
old writers; né with the present is common in poetry at all periods: —
né exspectétis (Pl. Ps. 1234), do not wait. f
né metuas (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear.
cave quicquam responderis (Pl. Am. 608), do not make any reply.
Norte 4.— Other negatives sometimes take the place of né: —
nihil igndveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing).
nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me.
Nore 5.— The regular connective, and do not, is néve.
a. The Present Imperative with né is used in prohibitions by early
writers and the poets : —
né timé (Pl. Curc. 520), don’t be afraid.
nimium né créde colori (Ecl. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion.
equ6 né crédite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse.
b. The Future Imperative with né is used in prohibitions in laws
and formal precepts (see § 449. 2).
1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with né is hortatory; that with cavé is an object
clause (cf. §§ 450. nN. 2, 565. n.1).
286 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 451, 452
INFINITIVE MOOD
451. The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly.
It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often
admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it
governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun! and was origi-
nally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into a sub-
stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), origi-
nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubed té valére
is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. N.).
Infinitive as Noun
452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may
be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo-
sition with the subject, or (8) as a Predicate Nominative.?
1. As Subject : —
dolére malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil.
bellum est sua vitia nésse (Att. ii. 17), it’s a fine thing to know one’s own
Faults.
praestat componere fluctiis (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves.
2. In Apposition with the Subject : —
proinde quasi iniiiriam facere id démum esset imperid titi (Sall. Cat. 12),
just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice, were to use power.
[Here facere is in apposition with id. ]
3. As Predicate Nominative :—
id est convenienter natiirae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in conformity
with nature. ([Cf. ati in the last example. ]
Norr 1.— An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi-
eate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object : —
istuc ipsum nén esse cum fueris miserrimum putd (Tuse. i. 12), for I think this
very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsum
belongs to the noun non esse.]
. miserari, invidére, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbés Graeci appellant (id. iii. 7),
to feel pity, envy, desire, joy,—all these things the Greeks call diseases.
{Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec,]
' 1 The ending -é (amare, monére, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending -i
(amari, monéri, regi, audiri) apparently dative; but this difference of case had no signifi-
cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the i-infinitives to the passive
was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.
2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented
as having some quality or belonging to some thing.
§§ 452-454] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPERSONALS 287
Nore 2.— An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in
any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a sub-
ject expressed or not. Thus,—n6n esse cupidum peciinia est (Par. 51), to be free from
desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]
a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and
similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the
subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : —
qués omnis eadem cupere, eadem ddisse, eadem metuere, in inum coégit
(Iug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same
things has united into one.
ingenuas didicisse fidéliter artis émollit mdrés (Ov. P. ii. 9. 48), faithfully to
have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqui éripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away.
453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative
of a noun : —
beaté vivere alii in alid, vis in voluptate pdnitis (Fin. ii. 86), a happy life
different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.
quam multa.. . facimus causa amicorum, precari ab indign6, supplicare, etc.
(Lael. 57), how many things we do for our friends’ sake, ask favors from
an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil exploratum habeas, né amare quidem aut améri (id. 97), you have noth-
ing assured, not even loving and being loved.
Notr.— Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusa-
tive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the
examples above. Thus,—avaritia ...superbiam, cridélitatem, deds neglegere, omnia
vénalia habére édocuit (Sall. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods,
and to hold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals
454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many
impersonal verbs and expressions:
Such are libet, licet, resets decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget,
necesse est, opus est, etc. :
libet mihi cénsiderare (Quine. 48), it suits me to consider.
necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die.
quid attinet gloridsé loqui nisi constanter loquare (Fin. ii. 89), what good does
it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently ?
neque mé vixisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.
gubernare mé taedébat (Att. ii. 7. 4), I was tired of being pilot.
Nortr. — This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (§ 456); but
the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as
the subjects of the impersonals.
288 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§ 455
455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In-
finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action
may be expressed —
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : —
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to
do this.
non lubet enim mihi déplérare vitam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me
to lament my life.
visum est mihi dé senectiite aliquid cdnscribere ( id. 1), it seemed good to
me to write something about old age.
quid est tam secundum natiiram quam senibus émori (id. 71), what is so
much in accordance with nature as for old men to die?
exstingui homini sud tempore optadbile est (id. 85); for a man to die at the
appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or
the object of the impersonal : —
si licet vivere eum quem Sex. Naevius nén volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed
a man to live against the will of Sextus Nevius.
nonne oportuit praescisse mé ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known
beforehand ?
ératérem irdsci minimé decet (Tusce. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for
an orator to lose his temper. :
pudéret mé dicere (N. D. i. 109), I should be ashamed to say.
consilia ineunt quérum eds in vestigid paenitére necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they
form plans for which they must at once be sorry.
Nore. — Libet, placet, and visum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and
generally decet, the accusative only; licet and necesse est take either case.
a. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative ;
but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative
is used : —
expedit bonds esse vobis (Ter. Haut. 388), i¢ is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse 6tidsd Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac-
tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive).
mihi neglegenti esse nén licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But
also neglegentem. |
cir his esse liberds nén licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to
be free ?
non est omnibus stantibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for
all to speak standing.
Norr. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a
predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. § 452. 3. n.2): as, —
vel pace vel bell6 clarum fieri licet (Sall. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in
peace or in war.
§§ 456, 457] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289
Complementary Infinitive
456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to
complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject
accusative.
Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, for-
get, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how,
fear, and the like : —
hdc qued dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.
mitt6 quaerere (Rosc. Am. 53), I omit to ask.
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face.
ord ut matirés venire (Att. iv. 1), I beg you will make haste to come.
oblivisci ndn possum quae vold (Fin. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which I
wish.
désine id mé docére (Tusc. ii. 29), cease to teach me that.
dicere solébat, he used to say.
auded dicere, I venture to say.
loqui posse coepi, J began to be able to speak.
Norte, — The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no
Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives
usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when
they have no subject expressed. Thus vold dicere and vold mé dicere mean the same
thing, I wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not
apparently different in origin and construction from qued dicere (complementary infin-
itive), and again vold eum dicere, J wish him to speak, is essentially different from
either (cf. § 563. 0).
457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com-
plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve,
command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. § 563) : —
décernere optabat (Q. C. iii. 11. 1), he was eager to decide.
optavit ut tollerétur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up.
oppignare contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm.
contendit ut caperet (id. v. 8), he strove to take.
bellum gerere constituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war.
constitueram ut manérem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain.
Norte 1.— For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs
instead of a complementary infinitive, see § 563.
NOTE 2.— Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi-
cal in meaning with others which do: —
eds qués titari débent déserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to
protect.
ayveo piignare (Att. ii. 18. 3), I’m anwious to fight,
290 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 457-460
a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infini-
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take
it in prose : —
furit té reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way
of saying cupit (§§ 457, 563. b).]
saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the name.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask (cf. § 450. x. 1).
parce pias scelerare mantis (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary
infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb: —
fierique studébam éius priidentia doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become
more wise through his wisdom.
scid quam soleds esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), I know how busy you
usually are (are wont to be).
brevis esse laboré, obsciirus fid (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become
obscure.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative
459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs
and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving
(Indirect Discourse, § 579) : —
dicit montem ab hostibus tenéri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by
the enemy. [Direct: mdns ab hostibus tenétur.]
Infinitive of Purpose
460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning
of Purpose.
a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunc-
tive clause after habed, d6, ministrd : —
tantum habeo pollicéri (Fam. i. 5a. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here
the more formal construction would be quod pollicear. |
ut Iovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to serve Jove with wine (to drink).
meridié bibere datd (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.
b. Paratus, suétus, and their compounds, and a few other partici-
ples (used as reiasporcbiras take the infinitive like the verbs from which
they come : —
id quod parati sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do.
adsuéfacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.
currii succédere suéti (Aen. iii. 541), used to being harnessed to the chariot.
copias bellare cOnsuétas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting.
§§ 460, 461] PECULIAR INFINITIVES 291
Nortr.— In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive con-
struction (§ 503 ff.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad :—
insuétus navigandi (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages.
alendis liberis suéti (‘Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children.
corpora insuéta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens.
c. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express
purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : —
filius intro iit vidére quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what
te is doing. [In prose: the supine visum. ]
non ferrd Libycés populare Penatis vénimus (Aen. i. 527), we have not come
to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes.
l6ricam ddnat habére viré (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear.
[In prose: habendam. ]
Norr.—So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see § 457.
For tempus est abire, see § 504. n. 2.
Peculiar Infinitives
461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a
Greek idiom : —
diirus componere versiis (Hor. S. i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse.
cantari dignus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantétur. ]
fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents.
cantare periti (Ecl. x. 32), skilled in song.
facilés aurem praebére (Prop. iii. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear.
nescia vinci pectora (Aen. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield.
té vidére aegroti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
a. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result : —
fingit equum docilem magister ire viam qua mGénstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64),
the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points
out.
hic levare . . . pauperem labdribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), he
when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.
Norr. — These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin-
itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 451). They had been supplanted,
however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part
through Greek influence.
b. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a
demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective : —
hdc non dolére (Fin. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. totum hic beaté
vivere (Tusc. v. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.]
nostrum vivere (Pers. i. 9), our life (to live).
scire tuum (id. i. 27), your knowledge (to know).
292 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 462, 463
Exclamatory Infinitive
462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,! may be used in
Exclamations (cf. § 397. d): —
té in tantés aerumnds propter mé incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas, that you
should have fallen into such grief for me!
méne incept6 désistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what! I beaten desist from my
purpose ?
Nore 1.— The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as
in the second example).
Nore 2.— The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with
their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486).
a. A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip-
tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced
by the interrogative -ne : —
quamquam quid loquor? té ut illa rés frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I
speak? [the idea] that anything should bend you !
egone ut té interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you ?
ego tibi irdscerer (Q. Fr. i. 8), I angry with you?
Nore. — The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc-
curring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative
in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative : —
tum Catilina pollicéri novds tabulds (Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised
abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ego instare ut mihi respondéret (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me.
pars cédere, alii insequi; neque signa neque Ordinés observare ; ubi quemque
periculum céperat, ibi resistere ac propulsdre; arma, téla, equi, viri,
hostés atque civés permixti; nihil cdnsilid neque imperid agi; fors
omnia regere (Iug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither
to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would
stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled
in confusion ; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all.
Nore. — This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is
never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses.
Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his-
torians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.
1 This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse,
though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the
French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem nadtam miseram mé memorabd?
(Plaut. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.
§§ 464, 465] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 293
TENSES
464, The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times,
Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic); as
determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined
but as relative to some time which is determined ; and the past and future times may
be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language
finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions,
according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme: —
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite
INCOMPLETE COMPLETE NARRATIVE
Present: a. I am writing. d. I have written. g. I write.
Past: b. Iwas writing. e. I had written. h. I wrote.
Future: c. I shall be writing. f. I shall have written. i. I shall write.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc-
tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express
aand g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and
an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist
in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinction of form between d and
h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con-
fusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the
same root, DIC), with @deéa, Skr. adiksham, 5édexa, Skr. didega. Latin also devel-
oped two new forms, those for e (scripseram) and f (scripserd), and thus possessed six
tenses, as seen in § 154. c.
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre-
cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding
to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to I am writing (a) and I write (g)
in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to I had written (e) is used in
like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses
the form for I shall have written (f) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, novi, I
have learned, is used for I know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood;
cognoverd, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his
own point of view.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
INCOMPLETE ACTION
PRESENT TENSE
465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now
taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time,
or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a
general truth : —
294 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 465, 466
senatus haec intellegit, cOnsul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the senate
knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives.
tibi concédi meds sédis (Div. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer which may
or may not be accepted).
exspecto quid velis (Ter. And. 34), I await your pleasure (what you wish).
tii actidnem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he
arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment. ]
minora di neglegunt (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [General
truth. ]
obsequium amicés, véritaés odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends,
truth hatred. [General truth. ]
Norr.— The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works
are extant : —
Epicirus véré ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things.
apud illum Ulixés lamentatur in volnere (id. ii. 49), in him (Sophocles)
Ulysses laments over his wound.
Polyphémum Homérus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. v. 115), Homer
brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with zam din etc.
466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe-
cially iam dif, iam didum) denotes an action continuing in the pres-
ent, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. 6).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect
in English : —
iam dit igndré quid agas (Fam. vii. 9), for a long time I have not known what
you were doing.
té iam diidum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you.
patimur multds iam anndés (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years.
[The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer. ]
anni sunt octd cum ista causa versatur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years
that this case has been in hand.
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of
Cratippus.
adhiic Plancius mé retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plancius has kept me here.
Nore 1.— The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning
and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and
leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long sufferéd (and still suffers)
with he still suffers (and has suffered long).
Notre 2.—Similarly the Present Imperative with iam didum indicates that the
action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Per-
fect Imperative in Greek): as,—iam didum simite poenas (Aen. ii. 103), exact the
penalty long delayed.
§§ 467-469] PRESENT TENSE 295
Conative Present
467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or
begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Pres-
ent, cf. § 471. ce): —
iam iamque manii tenet (Aen. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to
grasp him.
dénsos fertur in hostis (id. ii. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
décernd quinquaginta diérum supplicatidnés (Phil. xiv. 29), I move for fifty
days’ thanksgiving. ([Cf. senatus décrévit, the senate ordained. |
Present for Future
468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry,
is often used for the Future : —
imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat? (are we going to sit ?)
hodié uxdrem dicis (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day ?
quod si fit, pered funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone.
ecquid mé adiuvas (Clu. 71), won’t you give me a little help ?
in iis vocé té. ndn ed. non is (Pl. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court.
I won't go. You won't?
Norr.—E6 and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are
you going to-morrow? and the Greek ei in a future sense). Verbs of necessity,
possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, vold, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a. N.),
antequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. n.2), and § 444. a. N.
Historical Present
469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His-
torical Perfect : —
affertur nintius Syraciisis; curritur ad praetérium; Cleomenés in piblicéd
esse non audet ; inclidit sé domi (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syra-
cuse; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ;
he shuts himself up at home.
Nortr.— This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events
as going on before our eyes (repraesentatio, § 585. b. N.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see § 556.
a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera-
tion of past events (Annalistic Present) : —
Roma interim créscit Albae ruinis: duplicatur civium numerus; Caelius
additur urbi mons (Liv. i. 30), Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the
fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the Celian hill is added
do the town.
296 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 470, 471
IMPERFECT TENSE
470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued
or repeated in past time : —
hunc audiébant anted (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before.
[Sdcratés] ita cénsébat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habit-
ually), and so he spoke (then).
priidéns esse putabatur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The per-
fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things. |
jiamque rubéscébat Aurdra (Aen. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing.
ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there.
Norr. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as
in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does
not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus réx erat and réx fuit may often be used
indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it.
The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the
Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite : —
Haedui graviter ferébant, neque légatds ad Caesarem mittere audébant (B. G. y.
6), the Hedui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Cesar.
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, —
id tulit factum graviter Indiitiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at
this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicdsque habébant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages.
471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to
past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived
from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in
reference to past time.
a) The Imperfect is used in descriptions : —
erant omnin6 itinera duo... mons altissimus impendébat (B. G. i. 6), there
were in all two ways... a very high mountain overhung.’
b) ith iam dia, iam diidum, and other expressions of duration of
time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but be-
gun at some previous time (cf. § 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu-
perfect : —
iam didum flébam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time. -
copias quas diii comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had long
been getting ready.
c,) he Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended) Conative Imperfect ; cf.
§ 467) : —
e
§471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297
in exsilium éiciébam quem iam ingressum esse in bellum vidébam (Cat. ii.
14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone
into war ?
hunc igitur diem sibi prépdnéns Milé, cruentis manibus ad illa augusta cen-
turiarum auspicia veniébat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely
that he would come), etc.?
si licitum esset veniébant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed
(they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
Notr. —To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin-
ning of an action or state: as, —iamque arva tenébant ultima (Aen. vi. 477), and now
they were just getting to the farthest fields.
d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the
present discovery of a fact already existing : —
6 tii quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oh, you are here too!
ehem, tiin hic eras, mi Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here, Phedria?
a miser! quanta labérabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what
a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]!
e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets
where later writers would employ the Perfect : —
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Pl. Trin. 956), to
his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praesagibat mi animus fristra mé ire quom exibam dom6 (Pl. Aul. 178), my
mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
Norts. — So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. as I was a-saying)
is common in classic prose : —
at medici quoque, ita enim dicébas, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), but physicians
also, —for that is what you were saying just now, — are often mistaken.
haec mihi feré in mentem veniébant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred
to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be vénérunt.]
f. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the
English auxiliary could or would : —
itaque (Damoclés) nec pulchros illds ministratorés aspiciébat (Tusc. v. 62),
therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did
not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by
the overhanging sword. ]
nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum vidébatis (Cat. M. 79), for, you
know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per-
fect would refer only to one moment. |
Lentulus satis erat fortis dratdr, sed cogitandi non ferébat laborem (Brut. 268),
Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion
of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis
contrary to fact, see § 517. b, c. }
298. . $YNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 472, 473
FUTURE TENSE
472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur
hereafter.
a. The Future may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. 0).
b. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause:
cum aderit vidébit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 547).
sanabimur si volémus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf. § 516. a).
Norte. — But the Present is common in future protases (§ 516. a. N.).
COMPLETED ACTION
PERFECT TENSE
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed
(Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point
of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect).
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect
with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past):
(1) ut ego féci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. M. 26), as I have done,
who have learned Greek in my old age.
diiiturni silenti finem hodiernus diés attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an
end to my long-continued silence.
(2) tantum bellum extréma hieme apparavit, ineunte vére suscépit, media
aestate confécit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end
of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.
Norr.— The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in
most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds
of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distincticn
in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general
truth (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring
to time antecedent to that of the main clause : —
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuérunt, etiam cum soliti sunt tardius
ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the
body, even when released move more slowly.
simul ac mihi collibitum est, praestd est imagd (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I
have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.
§§ 473-476] PERFECT TENSE 299
haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si ndn événérunt, tamen quia possunt évenire
(Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet]
happened, because they still may happen.
Nore. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General
Conditions in present time (§ 518. 6).
474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that
a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists :
fuit ista quondam in hac ré publica virtiis (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir-
tue in this commonwealth.
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer.
filium habed... immo habui; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut.
93), I have a son, no, I had one ; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
fuimus Troes, fuit lium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is
no more.
Special Uses of the Perfect
475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, espe-
cially with negatives (Gnomie Perfect) : —
qui studet contingere métam multa tulit fécitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who —
aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
non aeris acervus et auri dédixit corpore febris (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of
brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.
Nor. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies that
something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never
will (cf. the English ‘ Faint heart never won fair lady’’); or, without a negative,
that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying
‘a, negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : —
dicébat melius quam scripsit Horténsius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison: com~
pare the use of quisquam, illus, etc. (§§ 311, 312), and the French ne
after comparatives and superlatives. ]
476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the
incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs 6di, [hate ; memini, [remember ; novi,
I know ; cénsuévi, I am accustomed,’ with others used preteritively,
as vénerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.), cOnstitérunt, they stand firm
(have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1): —
1 Cf, détestor, reminiscor, scid, soled.
300 SYNTAX: THE VERB [S§ 476-478
qui diés aestiis maximos efficere consuévit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally
makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make).
ctiius splendor obsolévit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor is now all faded.
Norr.— Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as, —dum oculds certamen
averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned).
(Here averterat = tenébat. ]
PLUPERFECT TENSE
477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state
completed in past time; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in
indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to: —
(1) loci natiira erat haec, quem locum nostri castris délégerant (B. G. ii. 18),
this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.
Viridovix summam imperi tenébat earum omnium civitatum quae déféce-
rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which
had revolted.
(2) neque vérd cum aliquid mandaverat cdnfectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), but
when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.
quae si quand6 adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacritaétem
(Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously]
desired, then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the
future : —
ut sémentem féceris, ita metés (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown),
so shall you reap.
carmina tum melius, cum vénerit ipse, canémus (Ecl. ix. 67), then shall we-
sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come).
si illius insidiae claridrés hic lice fuerint,:‘tum dénique obsecribo (Mil. 6),
when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight,
then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.
ego certé meum officium praestiterd (B. G. iv. 25), I at least shall have done
my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be
found to have done it, whatever the event).
Norr.—Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere
future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much
commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from
the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed : —
quid inventum sit pauld post viderd (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found out I shall
see presently.
qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confécerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever
crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) @ most
. loathsome war.
Ss ee
§§ 479-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301
EPISTOLARY TENSES
479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may
be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as
if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received : —
neque tamen, haec cum scribébam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerére
(Fam. v. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens
you are weighed down.
ad tuds omnis [epistulis] rescripseram pridié (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all
your letters yesterday.
cum quod scriberem ad té nihil habérem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 16),
though I have nothing to write to you, still I write this letter.
Nore. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and
Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only
when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribébam,
dabam, etc.).
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de-
note time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Im-
perfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or
past, the Pluperfect always to past.
481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were
habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the
main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main
verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are
known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
Note. — The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense
of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its
own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre-
sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was
more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent
clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously
regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep-
tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi-
fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means
rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and
they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would haye
obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care-
lessness.
802 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 482, 4838
Sequence of Tenses
482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses fol-
low special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independ-
ent clauses are divided into two classes,— Primary and Secondary.
1. Primary. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the
Present and Future Imperative.
2. Seconpary. — The Secondary Tenses include all forms that re-
fer to past time. ‘These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His-
torical Infinitive. ;
Norr.— To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent
clauses: —(1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect
Infinitive in Exclamations (see §§ 462, 485. a. N.).
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see § 485. a).
For the Historical Present, see § 485. e; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis,
see § 485. h.
483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of
Tenses : —!
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is
followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and
a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : —
PRIMARY TENSES
rogo, I ask, am asking quid facias, what you are doing.
rogabo, I shall ask quid féceris, what you did, were doing,
rogavi (sometimes), I have asked. have done, have been doing.
rogavero, I shall have asked quid factirus sis, what you will do.
— 2 ide fsa } ut nds moneat, to warn us
scribet, he will write ae .
scribe (scribitd), write ut nds moneds, to warn us.
scribit, he writes quasi oblitus sit, as if he had forgotten.
1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of sub-
ordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not
differ in principle from those which we are considering ; but for convenience the term
Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the
usual practice.
§§ 483-485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 308
SECONDARY TENSES
rogabam, I asked, was asking ) quid facerés, what you were doing.
: quid fécissés, what you had done, had
rogavi, I asked, have asked son deta:
rogaveram, I had asked quid factirus essés, what you would do.
scripsit, he wrote ut nds monéret, to warn us.
scripsit, he wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if he had forgotten.
484, In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe —
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (0) secondary.
(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action(i.e.
past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres-
ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then —
a. If the leading verb is prumary, the dependent verb must be in
the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes
completed action.
b. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in
the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it
denotes completed action : —
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] ws, scribit ut nds moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogd quid féceris.
(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nds monéret.
T asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogavi quid facerés.
c. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at
the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by
the Perfect or Pluperfect : —
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, démonstrat, si
vénerint, multés interittiros.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish,
démonstravit, si vénissent, multds interitiirés.
485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points
are to be noted: —
a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the
writer’s mind: —
ut satis esset praesidi prévisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that
there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence. |
addixi hominem in qué satisfacere exteris natidnibus possétis (Verr. i. 2), I
have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign
nations. [Secondary sequence. ]
304 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§ 485
est enim rés iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter
edrum causds qui dimicant, tamen inter victérias nédn multum interfu-
tirum putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), for affairs have been brought to such a pass
that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are
Sighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their vic-
tories. [Primary sequence. ]
ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitidsissimam natiiram excolere possit (Q. Fr.
i, 1. 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest
- nature. [Primary sequence. ]
Norr. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule: —
quemquamne fuisse tam sceleratum qui hoc fingeret (Phil. xiv. 14), was any one so
abandoned as to imagine this? ([Secondary.]
adedn rem redisse patrem ut extiméscam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have
come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]
b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to
denote any pastaction. Thusthe Perfect Subjunctive may represent —
1. A Perfect Definite : —
nén dubitd quin omnés tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt that all
your friends have written. [Direct statement: scripsérunt. ]
qua ré non ignoré quid accidat in ultimis terris, cum audierim in Italia que-
rellas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the
ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens.
[Direct statement: audivi. ]
2. A Perfect Historical : —
mé autem hic laudat quod rettulerim, non quod patefécerim (Att. xii. 21), me
he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I
brought it to light. [Direct statement: rettulit.].
3. An Imperfect : —
si forte cecidérunt, tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopés amicdrum (Lael. 53),
if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were
in friends. [Direct question: quam inopés erant ?]
qui status rérum fuerit cum has litteras dedi, scire poteris ex C. Titi Stra-
bone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this
letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question: qui status erat ?]
quam civitati carus fuerit maerdre fineris indicatum est (Lael. 11), how dear
he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeral. [Direct
question: quam carus erat ?]
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequéns fuerit Platénis auditor (Or. 15), it
may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato.
[Direct question: quam frequéns erat ?]
Nore. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite
or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well.
This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past
action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fécerit may mean (1) I wonder what he
has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist. perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.
§ 485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 305
ec. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : —
Horténsius ardébat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nill6 umquam flagrantius
studium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak-
ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man.
[Siciliam Verrés] per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in anti-_
quum statum nill6 modé possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres so
racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former
state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing. ]
videor esse conseciitus ut nin possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenire (Fam.
xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into
Italy. :
Nore 1.— This construction emphasizes the result; the regular sequence of tenses
vould subordinate it.
Norr 2.— There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a
Perfect Indicative : —
Thorius erat ita non superstitidsus ut illa plirima in sua patria et sacrificia et
fana contemneret ; ita nén timidus ad mortem ut in acié sit ob rem piblicam
interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised
[contemnébat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor-
ous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in batile, in defence of
the state.
d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses:
ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mitabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20),
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant
she is. [Direct: mitabilis est. ]
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandés animos ira habéret apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37),
here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct: habet.]
Notes. —In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
e. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primary,
sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the
primary or the secondary sequence : —
rogat ut ciiret quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he
had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence. ]
Notrr. — After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must
follow the secondary sequence : —
quo cum vénisset cogniscit (B. C. i. 34), when he had come there he learns.
cum esset piignatum horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in
cohortis faciunt (id. i. 46), when they had fought for five hours, and our
men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts.
f. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se-
quence : —
interim cotidié Caesar Haeduds frimentum, quod essent polliciti, flagitaire
(B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Cesar demanded of the Hedui every day the grain
which they had promised.
306 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§ 485
g- The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact
($ 517) and in the Deliberative Subjanetive ($ 444) are not affected
by the sequence of tenses : —
quia tale sit, ut vel si igndrarent id hominés vel si obmutuissent (Fin. ii. 49),
because it is such that even if men WERE ignorant of it, or HAD BEEN
silent about it.
‘quaero 4 té cir C. Cornélium non défenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why I -was
not to defend Caius Cornelius? [Direct: cir non défenderem ?]
hh. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to
fact ($ 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : —
si alii consulés essent, ad té potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eds mihi quam
amicissimés redderés (Fam. xv. 13. 3), if there were other consuls, I should
send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as
Friendly to me as possible.
si sdlds eds dicerés miserds quibus moriendum esset, néminem exciperés
(Tuse. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you
would except no one.
i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence,
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time : —
sed si rés coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicid nec mihi displicé-
bat: ut neque iacére rem paterémur, etc. (Fam. i. 5a. 3), but if the case
shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself
disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the
time of displicébat. ]
sed tamen ut scirés, haec tibi scribd (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, i
write thus. [Asif he had used the epistolary imperfect scribébam (§ 479). ]
cfiius praecepti tanta visest ut ea ndn homini cuipiam sed Delphicd ded
tribuerétur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an
old one.]
j. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se-
quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past
time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense : —
sed tamen qua ré acciderit ut ex meis superidribus litteris id suspicarére nescid
(Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my
previous letter, I don’t know.
tantum profécisse vidémur ut 4 Graecis né verbdrum quidem copia vinceré-
mur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance
of words we arE not surpassed by the Greeks.
Notr. — So regularly after a Perfect soe carga which depends on a primary tense
(§ 585. a).
§ 486] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 307
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE
486. Except in Indirect. Discourse, only the Present and Per-
fect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with-
out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 584.
a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility
(as débui, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in
Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive : —
numne, si Coriolanus habuit amicés, ferre contra patriam arma illi cum
Coriolan6 débuérunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to
have borne arms with him against their fatherland ?
peciinia, quam his oportuit civitatibus pro frimentd dari (Verr. iii. 174),
money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain.
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem 4 pueritia (Rep. i. 10),
how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that
course of life?
b. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect
Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action : —
tametsi statim vicisse débed (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case
at once (to be regarded as having won it).
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfécisse (Liv. xxxvii. 19. 5), a war
which we can have completed before winter.
nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong,
I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
NotTr. — With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently
due to attraction : —
quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have
been done long ago.
haec facta ab illd oportébat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him.
tum decuit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have
feared).
c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini-
tive is often used with ndl6 or volé in prohibitions : —
Chaldaeum néquem cinsuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to
have consulted a soothsayer.
ndlitd dévellisse (Pl. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.
néquis humasse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have
buried Ajax.
NEIQVIS EORVM BACANAL HABVISE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no one of them
venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship.
308 SYNTAX: THE VERB . [§ 486
d. With verbs of wishing’ the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com-
monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
domestica ciira té levatum volé (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you relieved of private
care.
illds monitds vold (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned.
qui illam [patriam] exstinctam cupit (Fin. iv. 66), who is eager for her utter
destruction.
illud té esse admonitum volé (Cael. 8), I wish you to be well advised of this.
qui sé ab omnibus désertés potius quam abs té défénsds esse malunt (Caecil.
21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you.
Nors.— The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with-
out esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly
be distinguished from that construction.
e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience),
rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically
instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wish-
ing : —
ném6 edrum est qui non perisse té cupiat (Verr. ii. 149), there is no one of
them who is not eager for your death.
haud equidem premendé alium mé extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59. 10), J
would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch.
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.
nunc quem tetigisse timérent, anguis eras (Ov. M. viii. 783), again you be-
came a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
fratrésque tendentés opacd Pélion imposuisse Olympé (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 51),
and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
f. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially
by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habed, melius est, contentus sum, and in
a few other cases where the distinction of time is important : —
non paenitébat intercapédinem scribendi fécisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not
sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet mé non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown.
sunt qués pulverem Olympicum collégisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), some
delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
quiésse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), i will be better to have kept quiet.
ac si quis amet scripsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have
written.
id sdlum dixisse satis habed (Vell. ii. 124), I am content to have said only
this.
1 Vold, and less frequently n0ld, malo, and cupis,
§§ 487-490] PARTICIPLES 809
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB
487. Theseveral Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed
as follows: —1
. Attributive (§ 494).
. Simple Predicate (§ 495). :
. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§ 495. N.).
. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 496).
- Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§ 497 d).
. Periphrastic with esse (§ 498. a).
. Periphrastic with ful (= Pluperfect Subjunce-
tive) (§ 498. b).
1. As Descriptive Adjective (§ 500. 1).
| ¢. Gerundive 2. Periphrastic with esse (§ 500. 2).
3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4).
( a, Present and
Perfect:
I. Participles:
RO Ot Go tO eS
b. Future
1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§ 504).
II, Gerund or 2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§ 505).
Gerundive: | 3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 506).
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§ 507).
Il. Supine: { 1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (§ 509).
; j 2. Ablative Supine (in -ti), chiefly with Adjectives (§ 510).
PARTICIPLES
488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form
of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may
govern a case.
Nor. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some
of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with
them in gender, number, and ease (§ 286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time
(§ 489) and often takes an object.
Distinctions of Tense in Participles
489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with
respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed,
and the Future as still to take place.
490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of
the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote —
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466) :
quaerenti mihi iam diii certa rés nilla veniébat in mentem (Fam. iy. 18),
though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
1 For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 ff., 486.
310 SYNTAX: THE VERB -[§§ 490-493
2. Attempted action ($ 467) :—
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 11), he resisted Fla-
minius when attempting to divide the Picene territory.
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a
verb of motion : —
Eurypylum scitantem dracula mittimus (Aen. ii. 114), we send Eurypylus to
consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.]
491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used
nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; common!y, arbitratus,
fisus, ausus, seciitus, and occasionally others, especially in later
writers : —
rem incrédibilem rati (Sall. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.
insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade.
cohortatus milités docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed.
iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad piignam congressi (Liv. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum
Or cum :'— :
obiére dum calciantur matiitind duo Caesarés (Plin. N. H. vii. 181), two
Cesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
méque ista délectant cum Latiné dicuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please
me when they are spoken in Latin.
Nortr.— These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed : —
dic, hospes, Spartae nos té hic vidisse iacentis, dum sanctis patriae légibus obse-
quimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here
obedient to our country’s sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla-
tion of the Greek present participle wei@duevor.]
dum [Ulixés] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, while
securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek: dpviuevos.]
493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice.
The deficiency is supplied —
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active
meaning : —
nam singulas [navis] nostri consectati expiignivérunt (B. G. iii. 15), for our
men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
Nortr. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or
passive in meaning (§ 190. b).
§§ 493-495] USES OF PARTICIPLES 311
2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the
ablative absolute (§ 420. N.) or by a temporal clause (especially with
cum or postquam) : —
itaque convocatis centuridnibus milités certidrés facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so,
having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centu-
rions having been called together).
cum vénisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had
come), he noticed a hill.
postquam id animum advertit copias suds Caesar in proximum collem subdicit
(B. G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) Cesar
led his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
494, The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used
as attributives, nearly like adjectives : —
aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind.
cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once
most ancient and well approved.
signa numquam feré mentientia (id. i. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspiciis tituntur codctis (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices.
a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com-
pared, or used as nouns : —
qué mulieri esset rés cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might be more secure
for the woman. ,
in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preéminent in those arts.
sibi indulgentés et corpori déservientés (Legg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, and
slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body).
récté facta paria esse débent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought
to be like in value (see § 321. 5).
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired
are ill spent).
consuétids valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health.
495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As
such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb
(see § 283) : —
Gallia est divisa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided.
locus qui nune saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.
vidétis ut senectiis sit operdsa et semper agéns aliquid et mdliéns (Cat. M. 26),
you see how busy oid age is, always aiming and trying at something.
ném6 adhiic convenire mé voluit cui fuerim occupatus (id. 32), nobody
hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been
sé engaged. ”
312 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 495, 496
Norr.— From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, — the
participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea
of past time: as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed
(i.e. already slain).
The perfect participle used with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expres-
sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing : —
cdtem quoque eddem locéd sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 36. 5), they say that a
whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing
it was no longer there. ]
arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the arms
which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc.
The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy
and later writers.
496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a
predicate, where in English a phrase ora subordinate clause would
be more natural.
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition,
concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant
circumstances : —
volventés hostilia cadavera amicum reperiébant (Sall. Cat. 61), while rolling
over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.]
paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little while,
he orders them to give the signal. ['Time.]
longius prdsequi veritus, ad Cicerdnem pervénit (B. G. v. 52), because he
Seared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qui sciret laxas dare iussus habénds (Aen. i. 63), who might know how to
give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.]
damnatum poenam sequi oportébat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment
must overtake him. [Condition.]
salitem inspérantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for
which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession. ]
Dardanius caput ecce puer détéctus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy with his
head uncovered. [Description.]
nec trepidés in isum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), be not anxious
for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic. ]
incitati fuga montis altissimés petébant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they
made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
milités sublevati alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris cdnficerent (id. i. 68),
the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of
the route. [Means.]
hdc laudans, Pompéius idem itravit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took
the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance. ]
aut sedéns aut ambulans disputaibam (Tusc. i. 7), I conducted the discussion
either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance. ]
§§ 496, 497] USES OF PARTICIPLES : 313
Norse 1.— These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420).
Note 2.— A codrdinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : —
instrictés Srdinés in locum aequum dédicit (Sall. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines,
and leads them to level ground.
ut hés traductos necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them
to death.
Nore 3.—A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in
English is given by without and a verbal noun: as, —miserum est nihil proficientem
angi (N. D. iii. 14), it ts wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
Nore 4.—Acceptum and expénsum as predicates with ferre and referre are book-
keeping terms: as, — quas peciinias ferébat eis expénsas (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he
charged to them.
497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that
the participle and not the noun contains the main idea: —1!
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or
building.
illi libertatem imminitam civium R6maéndrum non tulérunt; vos éreptam
vitam neglegétis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the
citizens’ liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives ?
post natds hominés (Brut. 224), since the creation of man.
iam 4 condita urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city.
a. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the
neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need
(cf. § 411. a): —
opus facto est viaticé (Pl. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision.
matiratd opus est (Liv. viii. 18. 17), there is need of haste.
b. The perfect participle with habed (rarely with other verbs) has
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin-
ued effect of the action of the verb :—?
fidem quam habent spectatam iam et diii cognitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity,
which they have proved and long known.
cohortis in acié Lxxx cOnstitiitas habébat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts
stationed in line of battle.
nefarids ducés captés iam et comprehénsos tenétis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now
captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.
c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that
verb more forcibly :.—
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin’s Greek Grammar,
§ 1588) ; and the English “ ’T was at the royal feast for Persia won”’ (Dryden), i.e. for
the conquest of Persia.
2 The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this
use of habeo.
314 SYNTAX: THE VERB [$§ 497-499
praefectis suds multi missds fécérunt (Verr. iii. 1384), many discharged their
officers (made dismissed).
hic transactum reddet omne (Pl. Capt. 345), he will get it all done (restore it
finished).
adémptum tibi iam faxs omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I will relieve you
of all fear (make it taken away).
illam tibi incénsam dabé (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you.
Nortr. —Similarly vold (with its compounds) and cupid, with a perfect participle
without esse (cf. § 486. d).
d. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present partici-
ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive
of indirect discourse (§ 580), but expresses the action more vividly :
ut eum ném6d umquam in equ6 sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one
ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]
Notr.— The same construction is used after facid, indiicd, and the like, with the
name of an author as subject: as,— Xenophon facit Sdcratem disputantem (N. D. i.
31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Future Participle (Active)
498. The Future Participle (except futirus and ventirus) is
rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets
and later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse
(often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion (seé § 195): —
morere, Diagora, ndn enim in caelum adscénsirus es (Tusc. i. 111), die,
Diagoras, for you are not likeiy to rise to heaven.
spérat aduléscéns ditt sé victirum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live
long (that he shall live long).
neque petitirus umquam consulatum vidérétur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seem
likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
b. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti-
ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 517. d).
For futiirum fuisse, see § 589. 0d.
499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is
often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express —
1. Likelihood or certainty : —
rem ausus pliis fimae habitiram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a thing which would
have more repute.
§§ 499, 500] GERUNDIVE 315
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : —
égreditur castris Romanus vallum invasirus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), the Roman comes
out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart.
dispersOs per agrés milités equitibus invasiris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse
were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
si peritirus abis (Aen. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis : —
dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datirus amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep.
iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he
had been able. [Here datirus is equivalent to dedisset. ]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
Norst. — The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct
uses: —
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 500).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (§ 503). This may be called its gerun-
dive use.
500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective
is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be
observed : —
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : —
fortem et cOnservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be pre-
served.
gravis initria facta est et ndn ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable
wrong has been done.
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse
in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196) : —
non agitanda rés erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated?
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs
may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex-
pressed in the appropriate case; with transitive verbs, an object in
the accusative is sometimes found : —
tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one must obey the time.
légibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
iitendum exercitatidnibus modicis (Cat. M. 36), we must use moderate exercise,
agitandumst vigiliis (Pl. Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter.
316 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 500-503
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive,
undertake, demand,' a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
to express purpose : —
redémptor qui columnam illam condiixerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the con-
tractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construc-
tion with this class of verbs. ]
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor
to take care of. ;
navis atque onera adservanda ciirabat (id. v. 146), he took care that the ships
and cargoes should be kept.
GERUND .
501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub-
stantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form
of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself.governed by other words; as a
verb it may take an object in the proper case : —
ars bene disserendi et véra ac falsa diiiidicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of dis-
coursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.
Norse. — The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the
example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomj-
native, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiidicare.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the
verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun
(cf. matiiratd opus est, § 497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tactid, p. 240, footnote).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa-
tive, the Gerundive? is generally used instead. The gerundive
agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would
have had : —
paratidrés ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed
by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad
subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
the accusative pericula.] For details, see §§ 504-507.
1 Such verbs are accipid, adnotd, attribud, condiicd, ciird,; déndtd, déposcd, do, divids,
d6nd, édicd, Edoced, ferd, habed, locd, mand6d, obicid, permittd, petd, pond, praebed, propodnd,
relinquo, rogo, suscipio, tradd, voved.
2 The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
§§ 503, 504] GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 317
Note 1.—JIn this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same
way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a passive participle,
and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may
translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard.
Nore 2.—In the gerundive construction the verbs itor, fruor, etc., are treated like
transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (§ 410. a.n.1): as,
—ad perfruendas voluptatés (Off. i. 25), for enjoying pleasures.
a. The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of
Gerund and Gerundive : —
urbem capiendi
urbis capiendae
agros colend6 } ee
agiin calendia he attends to tilling the fields.
mihi parendum to obey me.
pacem petendam } Hee come { to seek peace.
Gen. consilium { } a design of taking the city.
Dart. dat operam {
Acc. veniunt ad {
; { scribendd epistulas
Btn SER, ane { scribendis epistulis
Note 1.— The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and
the Ablative (without a preposition) ; even in these cases the gerundive is commoner.
Nore 2.— The gerund or gerundive is often found codrdinated with nominal con-
structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun: —
(1) in ford, in ciiria, in amicdrum periculis propulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum,
in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy.
(2) ad rés diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 4), for the most
widely different things, obeying and commanding.
} he spends time in writing letters.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive
504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after
nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive : —
vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Sub-
jective. ]
neque consili habendi neque arma capiendi spatid dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being
given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective. ]
non tam commitandarum quam évertendarum rérum cupidos (Off. ii. 8), desir-
ous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
Norte 1.— In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.
Notr 2.—In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily
have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as, —tempus est abire, it is time to go.
a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, espe-
cially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively : —
nilla causa ifista cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi (Phil. ii.
58), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country.
artem véra ac falsa diiiidicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of distinguishing true
From false.
818 SYNTAX: THE VERB * — [§§ 504, 505
Nore 1.— The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin)
as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose : —
quae postquam gloridsa modo neque belli patrandi cOgnévit (Iug. 88), when he
perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.
Aegyptum proficiscitur cégnéscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for
Egypt to study old times.
b. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia
expresses purpose (§ 533. 0) : —
pabulandi aut frimentandi causa progressi (B. C. i. 48), having advanced for
the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.
vitandae suspicionis causa (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion.
simulandi gratia (Iug. 37), in order to deceive.
exercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory.
c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or
pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective
genitive instead of taking a direct object : —
réiciendi trium iiidicum potestas (Verr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three
jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).
sui colligendi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive
505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few
expressions after verbs : — +
diem praestitit operi faciends (Verr. ii. 1. 148), he appointed a day for doing the
work.
praeesse agro colendd (Rosc. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land.
esse solvend6, to be able to pay (to be for paying).
Norr.— The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic
Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.
a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec-
tives,? especially those which denote fitness or adaptability : —
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor
suited to the defence of the body.
reliqua tempora démetendis friictibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M.
70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.
perferendis militum mandatis iddneus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying
out the instructions of the soldiers.
Nore. — This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent
in classical prose.
1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere.
2 Such are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, iddneus, par, iitilis, initilis.
But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. § 385. a).
§§ 505-507] ABLATIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 319
b. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal
phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate
the function or scope of the office etc.: —
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls.
triumvir coloniis dédicundis (Iug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies.
triumviri rei piblicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a com-
mission of three) for settling the government.
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive
506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. § 5383): —
mé vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write.
vivis non ad dépdnendam sed ad cénfirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live
not to put off but to confirm your daring.
nactus aditiis ad ea cénanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake
these things.
Note 1.— Other prepositions appear in this construction; inter and oba few times,
circa, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while
driving. i
eh 2.— The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct
object in classic Latin.
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive
507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1)
to express manner,! means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives ;
and (3) after the propositions ab, dé, ex, in, and (rarely) prd: —
(1) multa pollicends persuaddet (Iug. 46), he persuades by large promises.
Latiné loquendé cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin.
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things.
obsciiram atque humilem conciendd ad sé multitiidinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to
them a mean and obscure multitude.
(2) nillum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty
is more important than repaying favors.
(8) in ré gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs.
Nort 1.—The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used
with verbs and adjectives: as, —nec continuandd abstitit magistrati (Liv. ix. 34), he
did not desist from continuing his magistracy.
Nore 2.—The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose.
1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medizval
writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle: as,— cum tina di¢rum FLENDO sédis-
set, quidam miles generdsus iiixta eam EQUITANDO vénit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]),
as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare § 507, fourth
example). Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as man-
dando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages.
320 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 508-510
SUPINE
508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 94. b), having no
distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the
Accusative of the end of motion (§ 428. 7). (2) The form in -i is usually Dative of pur-
pose (§ 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.
509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express
purpose. It may take an object in the proper case : —
quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum vénimus té, non flagitatum (De Or.
iii. 17), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind, not
to entreat you.
niptum dare (collocare), to give in marriage.
vénérunt questum initirias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs.
Nore 1.—The supine in -um is especially common with €0, and with the passive
infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive : —
fuére civés qui rem piiblicam perditum irent (Sall. Cat. 36), there were citizens who
went about to ruin the republic.
SI sciret sé trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he was
going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of
expressing the future passive infinitive, see § 569. 3. a.]
Nore 2.— The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.
510. The Supine in-i! is used with a few adjectives and with
the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote an action in reference to
which the quality is asserted : —
tem non modo visi foedam, sed etiam auditi (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only
shocking to see, but even to hear of.
quaerunt quid optimum facti sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do.
si hoc fas est dictii (Tusc. v. 38), if this is lawful to say.
vidétis nefas esse dictii miseram fuisse talem senectiitem (Cat. M. 13), you
see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wretched.
Note 1. — The supine in -i is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (§ 418).
Norte 2. — The supine in -i is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an.
effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the
like. But with facilis, difficilis, and iticundus, ad with the gerund is more common: —
nec visi facilis nec dicti adfabilis Olli (Aen. iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any
man to look at or address.
difficilis ad distinguendum similitidd (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to dis-
tinguish.
Nore 3. — With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same
sense: as, —facilés aurem praebére (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear.
Nore 4, — The supine in -i with a verb is extremely rare: as, —pudet dicti (Tac.
Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dicti.]
1 The only common supines in -i are auditi, dicti, facti, invent, memorati, nati,
visi. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is never
followed by an object-case.
§ 511] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 321
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that
the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree by the nature
of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS) upon the truth of which the whole statement
depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen
from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought
which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because
the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the
sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though
the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word: my ser-
vant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak
the word, ete.
The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional mean-
ing: thus, si, 7/, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like
hi-ce, see § 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way.
Its relative sense (i) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correla-
tives: thus... thus (see § 512. b).
In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition
was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command; but, as no special
sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a state-
ment of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive).
From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter
all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative,
expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, express-
ing it originally as future—and hence more or less doubtful —or (2) the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it as futurum in praeterito,| and so unfulfilled
in the present or past. Thus, —ridés, maidre cachinn6 concutitur, you laugh, he shakes
with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and
apodosis; si ridés originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so,
later, 1F you laugh. So rogés Aristénem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the
original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; si rogés would mean ask in
some way or other. In sirogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogarés transfers the command
of rogés to past time,? with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the
same meaning as before; while negaret transfers the future idea of neget to past time,
and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives
rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact, — because, if it were true,
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition: for it would then be a
simple fact, and as such would be putin theindicative. Such a condition or conclusion
1 The futurum in praeterité is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past.
It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is
naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus dixisset, he would have
said = dictirus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards
the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a
tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present con-
dition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact.
2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (§ 439. b).
8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as, —
deciéns centéna dedissés, nil erat in loculis (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you’d given him a mil-
lion, there was nothing in his coffers.
322 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES _ [S§§ 511, 512
(originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny)
came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: swppose (or if) you were
now asking, he would [now] deny —just as in English ought, which originally meant
owed,! has come to express a present obligation.
For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see § 513.
PROTASIS AND APODOSIS
512. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses,
the Protasis and the A podosis.
The clause containing the condition is called the PROTASISs ;
the clause containing the conclusion is called the APoDOSIS : —
si qui exire volunt [prorasis], cOnivére possum [apoposis] (Cat. ii. 27), if
any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. _
si est in exsilid [prorasis], quid amplius postulatis [aroposis] (Lig. 13), if
he is in exile, what more do you ask?
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause
and the Protasis the dependent clause.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle
si, if, or one of its compounds.
Nortr. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etiam si, etsi, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Condi-
tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or
concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause: see Conditional
Relative Clauses (§§ 519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (§ 527).
b. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word o1
phrase: as, ita, tum (rarely sic), or eA condicidne etc. : —
ita enim senectiis honesta est, si sé ipsa défendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condi-
tion is old age honorable, if it defends itself.
si quidem mé amaret, tum istuc prddesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me,
then this would be profitable.
sic scribés aliquid, si vacabis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure,
then you will write something.
c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen-
tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other
clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or
a Phrase : —
sepultiira quoque prohibitiri, ni réx humari iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend-
ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be
interred.
1 “There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces.” — Tyndale’s
New Testament.
§§ 512-514] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 823
quod si praeterea ném6 sequatur, tamen sé cum sdlé decima legidne itirum
[esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), but if no one else should follow, he would go with
the tenth legion alone.
si quos adversum: proelium commovéret, his reperire posse (id. 40. 8), if the
loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
Nore. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend-
ent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above
examples, see § 589).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS
513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts
occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences
may be exhibited as follows : —
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
A. StmpLE ConpiTions (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
1. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses: —
si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well.
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses: —
si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well.
si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well.
B. Future Conpitions (as yet unfulfilled)
1. More Vivid
a. Future Indicative in both clauses: —
si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.
b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in
apodosis : —
si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be weil.
824 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§ 514
2. Less Vivid
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses: —
si adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, it would be well.
b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod-
osis :—
si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then]
be well.
C. Conpitions CoNTRARY TO Fact
1. Present ‘Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses :—
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is nor here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: —
si adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well
(but he was nor here).
Notr.— The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is
alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative;
if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future
Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact,
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to see me thus
is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so
too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.1
D. GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular
Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the
cases following : —
1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject)
in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: —
si hic dicas, créditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed.
b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
si quid dixit, créditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed.
1In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form
with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he
would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does
not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has
been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.
-§§ 514, 515] SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS 325
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis : —
si quid dixerat, crédébatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed.
b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis : —
si quid diceret, crédébatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always]
believed (= whatever he said was always believed).!
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied -
515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose
falsity is NOT implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indica-
tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis : —
si tii exercitusque valétis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well,
it is well. [Present Condition. ] .
haec igitur, si ROmae es; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic sé habent
(Att. v. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away — or even
if you are there — these matters are as follows. [Present Condition. }
si Caesarem probatis, in mé offenditis (B. C. ii. 82. 10), if you favor Cesar,
you find fault with me. [Present Condition. ]
si qui magnis ingeniis in ed genere exstitérunt, non satis Graecdrum gloriae
respondérunt (Tusc. i. 3), if any have shown themselves of great genius in
that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular. ]
accépi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in qué, si modo valuisti
et Romae fuisti, Philotimi diicd esse culpam non tuam (Att. v. 17), I have
received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, pro-
vided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus,
not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and Present conclusion. ]
quis litteris, si ROmae es, vidébis putésne reddendas (id. v. 18), as to this
letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought
to be delivered. [Mixed: Present and Future. ]
si ném6 impetravit, adroganter rogé (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtain-
ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present. ]
1 Cf. the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions: —
A. 1. el mpdooe Toiro, Kadds éxe. 2. el Erpacce Totro, adds elxer.
B. 1. éav rpdocy rotro, xad@s te. 2. el mpdooa Totro, Kah@s av Fxou.
C. 1. el rpacce Tofro, kadds dy efxer. 2. el pate rodro, kah@s Av Fo ev.
D. 1. édv tis KNewTY, Koda Serar, 2. el ris KAérrot, Exoddgero,
326 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 515, 516
a. In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the In-
dicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense : —
si placet . . . videdmus (Cat: M. 15), if you please, let us see. [Hortatory
Subjunctive, § 439.]
si nondum satis cernitis, recordamini (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly,
recollect. [Imperative. ]
si quid habés certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy
information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, § 447. 1.]
Norr. — Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the
truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such impli-
cation : —
nolite, si in nostrd omnium fléti nillam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus
el parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no
« tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that.
petimus 4 vobis, iiidicés, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatid débet
esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges,
if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to us as
by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your pro-
tection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by
the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the
inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds
more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid.
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct
supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the
logical result.
2. Ina less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct,
the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used
in both protasis and apodosis : —
sanabimur, si volémus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod si legere aut audire volétis, . . . reperiétis (Cat. M. 20), if you will
[shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
Notr.—In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative,
rarely by the Future with sHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in
the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. § 468) : —
si vincimus, omnia nébis tiita erunt; sin metii cesserimus, eadem illa advorsa fient
(Sall. Cat. 58), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield
through fear, those same things will become hostile.
si pered, hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Aen. iii. 606), if I perish, it will be
pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.
§ 516] FUTURE CONDITIONS 327
b. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is
used in both protasis and apodosis : —
haec si técum patria loquatur, ndnne impetrare débeat (Cat. i. 19), if your
country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur, . . . valdé reciisem (Cat. M. 83), but if some
god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
Nore. — The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future
(or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view: —1
si diligenter attendamus, intellegémus (Inv. ii. 44), if we atiend (should attend)
carefully, we shall understand.
nisi hdc dicat, ‘‘itire féci,” non habet défénsidnem (id. i. 18), unless he should
say this, “ey acted justifiably,’’ he has no defence.
c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the
apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present
Subjunctive : —
sin cum potuer6 non véner6, tum erit inimicus (Att, ix. 2 a. 2), but if I do not
come when I can, he will be unfriendly.
si 4 cor6na relictus sim, nOn queam dicere (Brut. 192), if I should be deserted
by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak.
Norr. — The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition:
as, — vehementer mihi gratum féceris, si hunc aduléscentem himanitate tua compre-
henderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive
this young man with your usual courtesy.
d, Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the
apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in
-dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like : —
alius finis constituendus est, si prius quid maximé reprehendere Scipio solitus
sit dixerd (Lael. 59), another limit must be set, if I first state what Scipio
was wont most to find fault with.
sI mé praecéperit fatum, vds mandasse mementé (Q. C. ix. 6. 26), if fate cuts
me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.
nisi oculis videritis Insidias Miloni 4 Clodié factas, nec déprecatiri sumus nec
postulatiri (Mil. 6), wnless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against
Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.
nén possum istum acciisare, si cupiam (Verr. iv. 87), I cannot accuse him, if
I should (so) desire.
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not; as in the
proverbial “If the sky falls, we shall catch larks”’ the impossible condition is iron-
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condi-
tion stated by some one else.
328 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [$$ 516, 517
e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Pres-
ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the
conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : —
si hdc bene fixum in animé est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in
your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered. |
si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall have kept
the same spirit, we have conquered.
f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time,
without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517): In such cases
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : —
non poterat, nisi décertdre vellet (B. C. ili. 44), he was not able, unless he
wished to fight.
tumulus apparuit, ... si lice palam irétur hostis praeventirus erat (Liv.
xxii. 24), a hill appeared... if they should go openly by daylight, the
enemy would prevent. ['The first two appear like Indirect Discourse,
but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example
as present would say non potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect dis-
course would be thought of. ]
Caesar si peteret,. . . ndn quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Cesar
were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con-
trary to fact, but is simply si petat, nn proficiat, thrown into past time. ]
Conditions Contrary to Fact
517. In the statement of a supposition wmpliedly false, the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and
apodosis.1. The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect
to past : —
si viveret, verba éius audirétis (Rosc. Com. 42), if he were living, you would
hear his words. [Present.]
nisi ti 4misissés, numquam recépissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I
should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si meum consilium valuisset, tii hodié egérés, rés piblica ndn tot ducés ami-
sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you
would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many
leaders. [Mixed Present and Past. ]
1The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunc-
tive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time
for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; so
that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms
6f the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in
apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and § 511).
§ 517] CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT 329
a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con-
tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist :
si nihil litteris adiuvadrentur, numquam sé ad efrum studium contulissent
(Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never
would have given their attention to the study of %. [Without the condi-
tion, adiuvabantur. ]
hic si mentis esset suae, ausus esset édiicere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were
of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army? [Here esset
denotes a continued state, past as well as present. ]
non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris patéret (Verr. ii.
- 8), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had
been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patébat.]
b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses
of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely,
or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds
in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect,
Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive : —
si licitum esset, matrés veniébant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if
it had been allowed.
in amplexis filiae ruébat, nisi lictérés obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 32), he was
about rushing into his daughter’s arms, unless the lictors had opposed.
iam tita tenébam, ni géns criidélis ferrd invasisset (Aen. vi. 358), I was just
reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
Norte 1.— Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus, —matrés venié-
bant (et vénissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) #/, ete.
Nore 2. — With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicative is used
in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as,— pons iter paene hostibus
dedit, ni inus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to the
Soe, if it had not been for one hero.
c. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possi-
bility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to
fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, d&bed, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation : —1
non potuit fieri sapiéns, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become
a sage, if he had not been born.
si privatus esset hdc tempore, tamen is erat déligendus (Manil. 50), if he were
at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed.
1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf. p. 328, footnote).
Thus, decet mé [hodié] ire cras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow ;
and, decébat mé [heri] ire hodié, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually
with the implication that I have not gone as I was bound to do.
330 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§ 517
quod esse caput débébat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the
main point, if it could be proved.
si ita putasset, certé optabilius Miloni fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely
it would have been preferable for Milo.
Note 1. —In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (oportéret, possem, etc.)
is the rule, the Indicative being rare; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually
Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For par erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. Nn.
Nore 2.— The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as,—si
non alium iactaret oddrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving
out a different odor.
d. The participle in -tirus with eram or fui may take the place of
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi-
tion contrary to fact : —
quid enim futirum fuit [= fuisset], si. . . (Liv. ii. 1), what would have hap-
pened if, etc.
relictiiri agrds erant, nisi ad eds Metellus litteras misisset (Verr. iii. 121), they
would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter.
neque ambigitur quin . . . id factiirus fuerit, si. . . (Liv. ii. 1), nor is there
any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct: fécisset. ]
aded parata séditis fuit ut Othdnem raptiri fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuis-
sent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would
have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In
a main clause: rapuissent, ni timuissent. ]
e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the
protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : —
ni comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him,
he would have rushed on. [Cf. tii si hic sis, aliter sentids (Ter. And. 310),
if you were in my place, you would think differently.]
Note 1.— This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).
Nore 2.—In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used
in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect)
in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive,
like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences.
Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted
to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the min) to the present contrary to fact,
while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction,
however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
f. In Plautus and Terence absque mé (té, etc.) is sometimes used to
introduce conditions contrary to fact : —
absque té esset, hodié nusquam viverem (Pl. Men. 1022), if it were not for
you, I should not be alive to-day.
absque e6 esset, récté ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for
him, I should have looked out for myself.
§ 518] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331
GENERAL CONDITIONS
518. General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms
as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished
in the following cases : —
a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to
denote the act of an indefinite subject (you = any one). Here the
Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : —
vita himana prope uti ferrum est: si exerceds, conteritur; si ndn exerceds,
tamen robig6 interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if
you use it, it wears away; if you don’t use it, rust still destroys it.
virtiitem necessari6 gloria, etiamsi tii id ndn agas, consequitur (‘Tusc. i. 91),
glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one’s aim.
si prohibita imptine transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac.
Ann, iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no
Sear or shame any more.
b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes
the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For
past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in
the apodosis : —
si qués aliqua parte membrérum initilis notavérunt, necAri iubent (Q. C. ix.
1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they
[always] order them to be put to death. [Present.]
si 4 persequend6 hostis déterrére nequiverant, ab tergd circumveniébant (Iug.
50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they
[always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]
c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Cesar), the Imperfect and
Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In-
dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past
time (Iterative Subjunctive) :—
si quis 4 domin6 prehenderétur, concurstii militum éripiébatur (B. C. iii. 110),
if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by
a mob of soldiers.
acctisatdrés, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiébantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the
accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
si quis collégam appellasset, ab e6 ita discédébat ut paenitéret non pridris
décrét5 stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he
[always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to
the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. Sdcratés, quam sé cumque in
partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever
direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if
in any, etc.).]
332 ~ S$YNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES _ [§§ 519, 520
Conditional Relative Clauses
519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative
Adverb may express a condition and take any of the construc-
tions of Protasis! (§ 514): —
qui enim vitiis modum adpénit, is partem suscipit vitidrum (Tusc. iv. 42), he
who [only] sets a limit to faulis, takes up the side of the faults. [= si
quis adponit. Present, nothing implied.]
qui mentiri solet, péierare consuévit (Rosc. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of
lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [= siquis solet. Present, nothing
implied. ]
quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per sé (Leg. Agr. i. 20), whatever power she had,
she had by herself. [= si quid potuit. Past, nothing implied. ]
quod qui faciet, nén aegritiidine sdlum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and
he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [= si quis faciet.
Future, more vivid. ]
quisquis hiic vénerit, vipulabit (Pl. Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a
thrashing. [= si quis vénerit. Future, more vivid: ]
quod volés, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow.
[= si qué volés. Future, more vivid.]
philosophia,cui qui pareat,omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit dégere(Cat.
M. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to gpend
his whole life without vexation. [= si quis pareat. Future, less vivid. ]
quaecumque vos causa hiic attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad,
whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one
which did). [=si... attulisset. Contrary to fact.]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning,
and very often in form.
520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some-
times found in Conditional Relative Clauses: — |
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 518. a): —
bonus tantum modo ségnior fit ubi neglegas, at malus improbior (Iug. 31. 28),
a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don’t watch him, but a
bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition. ]
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. 6): —
cum hiic véni, hdc ipsum nihil agere mé délectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I
come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come,
etc.). [Present General Condition. ]
1 As in the Greek Os av, éray, etc.; and in statutes in English, where the phrases
if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.
§§ 520, 521] CONDITION DISGUISED 388
eum rosam viderat, tum incipere vér arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he
saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past
General Condition. ]
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Cesar) the Imperfect or
Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative
in the apodosis (§ 518. c): —
ubi imbécillitas materiae postulare vidérétur, pilae interpénuntur (B. C. ii.
16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put
between. [Past General Condition: interpénuntur = interpdnébantur. }
quécumque sé intulisset, victdriam sécum trahébat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he
advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition. }
Condition Disguised
521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is
not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other
form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
a. The condition may be implied in a Claas: or in a Pair
Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase : —
facile mé paterer — ill6 ipso ifidice quaerente — pro Sex. Réscid dicere (Rosc.
Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very
judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact: si quaereret,
paterer. |
n6n mihi, nisi admonité, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), it would not have
come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to
fact: nisi admonitus essem. ]
nilla alia géns tanta mole cladis ndn obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no
other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster.
[Past contrary to fact: si alia fuisset.]
némd umquam sine magn4 spé immortalitatis sé pro patria offerret ad mortem
(Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose
himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact: nisi magnam
spem habéret. ]
quid hunc paucdrum annodrum accessié iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11), what good
could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ?
[Past contrary to fact: si accessissent. ]
quid igitur mihi ferarum laniadtus oberit nihil sentienti (Tusc. i. 104), what
harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don’t feel anything
(feeling nothing)? [Future more vivid: si nihil sentiam. ]
incitata semel proclivi labuntur sustinérique nill6 mod6 possunt (id. iv. 42),
if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be
checked. [Present General: si incitata sunt. ]
334 | SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 521, 522
Nore. —In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imper-
fect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition
contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c): —
quanto melius fuerat promissum non esse servatum (Off. iii. 94), how much better
would it have been if the promise had not been kept! [prdmissum .
servatum = si promissum non esset servatum. ]
mori praeclarum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it would have been honorable to die.
sed erat aequius Tridrium aliquid dé dissénsidne nostra itidicare (Fin. ii. 119), but it
would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Tri-
arium itidicare =si Triarius iiidicaret.]
satius fuit Amittere milités (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers.
{amittere =si amisisset. ]
b. The condition may be contained in a wish (Optative Subjunctive),
or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive
or Imperative) : —
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis nén esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I
had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been).
[Optative Subjunctive. ]
natiiram expellas furca, tamen disque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive out
nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory. ]
rogés enim Aristénem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22),
ald men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili-
gence (§ 528. n.). [Hortatory.]
tolle hance opinidnem, liictum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and
you will have done away with grief. [Imperative. ]
Norr. — The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and né often has the force
of protasis (§ 527. a. N.): as,—ut enim ratidnem Platé nillam adferret, ipsi auctoritate
mé frangeret (Tusce. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower
me by his mere authority.
c. Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
ridés: mfidre cachinnd concutitur (Iuv. iii. 100), you laugh ; he shakes with
louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes).
commové: sentiés (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up, [and] you'll find, etc.
dé paupertate agitur: multi patientés pauperés commemorantur (id. iii. 57),
we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see §§ 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred
from the course of the argument : —
poterat Sextilius impiine negare: quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii: 55), Sectilius
might have denied with sielieidinad Sor who would prove him wrong (if he
had denied)?
§§ 522, 523] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 335
a. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the
Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact : —
quod contra decuit ab ill6 meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on
the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him.
nam nds decébat domum ligére ubi esset aliquis in liicem éditus (Tusc. i.
115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been
born (but we do not).
quant6 melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been.
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concédere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more Jit-
ting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectire magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great
matter to wait for the man himself ?
longum est ea dicere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, ete.
[Future. ]
Nore 1.—In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time;
the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportébat means it ought
to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
Norte 2.—In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
Complex Conditions
523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea
in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied
qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the
parts is sometimes disguised : —
si quis hdrum dixisset . . . si verbum dé ré piiblica fécisset . . . multa plira
dixisse quam dixisset putarétur (Rosc. Am. 2), 7f any of these had spoken,
in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said
much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole
of the following statement (si. . . putarétur), which is itself conditioned
by a protasis of its own: si verbum, etc. ].
quod si in hdc mundé fieri sine ded nén potest, né in sphaera quidem edsdem
mOtiis sine divind ingenid potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63), now if that can-
not be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archi-
medes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine
genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its
apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-
to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine. . . ingenid.]
peream male si ndn optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound n me (may I
perish wretchedly) if it would n’t be better. [Here peream is apodosis to
the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary
to fact, is omitted. ]
336 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§ 524
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)
524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunetive,
usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses
requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam,
tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all mean-
ing as if), and by quam si (than if): —
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (Pl. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame.
ita hds [hon6rés] petunt, quasi honesté vixerint (Iug. 85), they seek them
(offices) just as if they had lived honorably.
quasi vérd non specié visa itidicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things
were not judged by their appearance.
similiter facis ac si mé rogés (N. D. iii. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me.
cridélitatem horrérent velut si cdram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded his
cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hic ingentem pignam cernimus ceu cétera nusquam bella forent (Aen. ii. 438),
here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But
sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.]
magis 4 mé abesse vidébare quam si domi essés (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to
be absent from me more than if you were at home.
Nore 1.— These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis
implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus sim the protasis is introduced
by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
Nore 2.— The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different
in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were
lame, —as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as
[it would be] if I showld [at some future time] be Jame, and so is a less vivid future
‘condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honesté vixerint, as if
they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have
lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 516. ¢).
a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of
comparison : — ;
aequé 4 té petd ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much
as if it were my own business.
éius negdtium sic velim suscipias ut si esset rés mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I would
have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
Nore. — The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause
with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam si
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule.
§ 525] USE OF Si AND ITS COMPOUNDS 387
Use of si and its Compounds
525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti-
eles may be stated as follows : —
a. Siis used for affirmative, nisi (ni) and si ndn for negative con-
ditions.
1, With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true
except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true : —
nisi Condn adest, maered, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in
a state of grief except in the single case of Conon’s presence, in which
case I am not).
2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the agit Se
ease supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made : —
si Condn non adest, maered, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in
the single case of Conon’s absence, nothing being said as to other cases
in which I may or may not mourn).
Notrg.—It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is
stated.
3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : —
noli putare mé ad quemquam inakase aera scribere, nisi si quis ad mé
pliira scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), ... except in case one writes more to me.
Nore. —Ni is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappear-
ing in poets and later writers.
b. Nisi vérd and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep-
tion tronically, and take the Indicative : —
nisi vérd L. Caesar criidélior visus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius
Cesar seemed too cruel.
nisi forte volumus Epiciirédrum opinidnem sequi (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure,
we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
Nore. —This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin.
Wisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,—nisi inum hoc faciam ut in puted
cénam coquant (Pl. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner
in the well.
c. Sive (seu) .. . sive (seu), whether... or, introduce a condition
in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of
condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also
they are used without a verb : —
nam illd locd libentissimé soled iti, sive quid mécum ipse cdgitd, sive quid
scribd aut legd (Legg. ij. 1), for I enjoy myself most in that place, whethe-
I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
Nore, —Sive ... seu and seu... sive are late or poetic.
838 SYNTAX: CONCESSIVE CLAUSES [$§ 525-527
d. Sin, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that
precedes : —
acciisator illum défendet si poterit ; sin minus poterit, negabit (Inv. ii. 88),
the accuser will defend him if he can; but if he cannot, he will deny.
e. Nisiis often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only
when a negative (usually nescié) is expressed, or easily understood, in
the main clause : —
nescid: nisi mé dixisse némini cert6 scid (Ter. Ph. 952), I don’t know: only
I am sure that I haven’t told anybody.
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
526. The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms,
each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hor-
tatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (§ 440), but it is more
frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a con-
cessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are
indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative par-
ticle (tamen, certé) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ-
ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and
somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting
that) are quamvis, ut, licet, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, ac-
cording to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
a. Quamvis and ut take the Subjunctive : —
quamvis ipsi infantés sint, tamen. . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking
they themselves may be, yet, etc.
quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have
been.
quamvis cOmis in amicis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may have
been in keeping his friends.
ut néminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other.
ut enim non efficias quod vis, tamen mors ut malum non sit efficiés (Tuse. i.
16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove
that death is not an evil.
ut ratidnem Platé nillam adferret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
Nore. —Quamvis means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example
above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvis
is hortatory, like that with né (§ 440); that with ut (ut non) is of uncertain origin.
b. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive : —
licet omnés mihi terrdrés periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 31), though all
terrors and perils should menace me.
§ 627] CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 339
Nore. — Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence
the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The
conzessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substan-
tive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (§ 565. n.1).
c. Etsi, etiam si, tametsi, even if, take the same constructions as si
(see § 514): —
etsi abest matiritas, tamen non est iniitile (Fam. vi. 18. 4), though ripeness
of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc.
etsi numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspicié (id. v. 19), although it has never
been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
etsi statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissétis, tamen contentds vos esse oportébat (Sull. 90),
even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.
: etiam si quod scribas non habébis, scribits tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you
{shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tametsi vis parvi pendébatis (Sall. Cat. 52. 9), but although you regarded
those things as of small account.
Norte 1. — Tametsi with the subjunctive is very rare.
Norte 2.—A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as, — ego, si essent ini-
micitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hdc tempore rei piiblicae consulere .. . débérem
(Proy. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Cesar, it would still
be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
d. Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the
Indicative : —
omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus — pestem déniintiat (Phil. xiv.
8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all
with destruction.
Notre. — Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition
in the indicative: as, —quamquam haec quidem iam tolerabilia vidébantur, etsi, etc.
(Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
e. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam-
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc-
tive, according to the nature of the condition : —
quamquam movérétur (Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved.
Pollid amat nostram, quamvis est riistica, miisam (Ecl. iii. 84), Pollio loves
my muse, though she is rustic.
quamvis pervénerds (Liv. ii. 40), though you had come.
f. Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession :
vérum ut erradre potuisti, sic décipi té ndn potuisse quis ndn videt (Fam. x.
20. 2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you
cannot have been deceived in this way ?
For cum concessive, see § 549; for qui concessive, see § 535. e. For concession ex-
pressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative né), see § 440.
840 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PROVISO [$§ 528-531
CLAUSES OF PROVISO
528. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso,
take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is né:
dderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear.
valétid6 modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health be good.
dummodo inter mé atque té miirus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the wall
(of the city) is between us.
tantum ut sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know.
modo né sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he be
not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dum né lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often,
provided he does not get tired.
- dummodo ea (sevéritas) né variétur (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness) *
be not allowed to swerve.
tantum né noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm.
Norr.— The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and
dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses,
§ 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don’t care).
a. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex-
presses a proviso : —
sint Maecénatés, non deerunt Maronés (Mart. viii. 56. 5), so there be Mece-
nases, Virgils will not be lacking.
b. The Subjunctive with ut (negative né) is sometimes used to de-
note a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause : —
probata condicié est, sed ita ut ille praesidia dédiceret (Att. vii. 14. 1), the
terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the
garrisons.
Nots. — This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see § 535. d.
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)
529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming
through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see §592). Thus, misit
légatds qui dicerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed .
to say; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dicant in the
Indirect Discourse of narrative (§ 588) or dicerent in the past (cf. hortatory subjunctive
in past tenses, § 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and né is, in general, similar in
origin.
530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti),
negative né (ut né), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb: — _
§ 581] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 341
1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (uti) or n& (ut né), express the
purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause: —
ab aratrd abdiixérunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought
Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator.
ut sint auxilid suis, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be
an aid to) their own men.
né milités oppidum inrumperent, portas obstruit (id. i, 27), he barricaded the
gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town.
scalas parari iubet, né quam facultatem dimittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling-
ladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.
ut né sit imptine (Mil. 31), that it be not with impunity.
NotE 1.— Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative (ide, idcircd, e5 consilid, etc.)
in the main clause (ef. § 561. a) :—
légum idcircd servi sumus, ut liberi simus (Clu. 146), for this reason we are subject
to the laws, that we may be free.
copias transdixit ed consilid, ut castellum expignaret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), he led the
‘troops across with this design —to storm the fort.
Nore 2.— Ut nin sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when nén belongs to some
particular word: as,—vut pliira nén dicam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qué, etc.). The antecedent
is expressed or implied in the main clause: —
mnittitur L. Décidius Saxa qui loci natiiram perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Lucius
Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).
scribébat Sratidnés quads alii dicerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other
men to deliver.
ed exstinctd fore unde discerem néminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead
there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn.
huic né ubi cdnsisteret quidem contra té locum reliquisti (Quinct. 73), you
have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
habébam qué confugerem (Fam. iv. 6. 2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
Note. — In this construction qui=ut is (etc.), ubi=ut ibi, and so on (§ 537. 2).
a. The ablative qué (= ut ed) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses which contain a comparative : —
comprimere edrum audaciam, qué facilius céterdrum animi frangerentur
(Fam. xv. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others
might be broken more easily (by which the more easily).
libertate fisus est, qué impiinius dicix esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage
of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
Nortsr. — Occasionally qué introduces a final clause that does not contain a compara-
tive: as, —L. Sulla exercitum, qué sibi fidum faceret, lixuridsé habuerat (Sall, Cat. 11),
Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him.
For quéminus (—ut ed minus) after verbs of hindering, see § 558. b. a:
342 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE [S§ 532, 533
532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context : —
ac né longum sit . . . iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedious, we ordered,
ete. ([Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered. ]
sed ut ad Dionysium redefmus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to Dionysius.
sed ut eddem revertar, causa haec fuit timdris (Fam. vi. 7. 3), but, to return
to the same point, this was the cause of fear.
satis incdnsiderati fuit, né dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 12), it was the act of one
rash enough, not to say daring.
Norte 1.—By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used with nédum (sometimes né),
still less, not to mention that : —
nédum salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe.
Sar more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandals.
nédum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a
journey.
quippe secundae rés sapientium animés fatigant; né illi corruptis moribus vic-
toriae temperarent (Sall. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the soul even
of the wise; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on
victory.
Nore 2.— With nédum the verb itself is often omitted: as,—aptius himanitati
tuae quam tota Peloponnésus, nédum Patrae (Fam. vii. 28. 1), fitter for your refine-
ment than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patre.
For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see §§ 563-566,
533, The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various
ways; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in
poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 460).
The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered —
(1) vénérunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 531. 1).]
(2) vénérunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 531. 2).]
(83) [vénérunt ad petendum pacem.] Notfound with transitive verbs (§ 506,
n. 2), but cf. ad parendum senatui. [Gerund with ad (§ 506).]
(4) vénérunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 506).]
(5) vénérunt pacem petendi causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa
(§ 504. b).]
(6) vénérunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa
(§ 504. 6).]
(7) vénérunt pacem petitiri. [Future participle (§ 499. 2); in later writers. ]
(8) vénérunt pacem petitum. [Supine in -um (§ 509). ]
These forms are not used indifferently, but —
a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative né),
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which
case a relative is more common: —
§$§ 588-535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 343
légatds ad Dumnorigem mittunt, ut ed déprecatdre 4 Séquanis impetrarent
(B. G. i. 9), they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his interces-
sion to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.
milités misit ut eds qui figerant persequerentur (id. v. 10), he sent the sol-
diers to follow up those who had fled.
Cirid praemittit equités qui primum impetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio
sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack.
b. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not
the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion,
and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 509).
d. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con-
struction of inferior authority (§ 499. 2).
For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see § 460. c. For the Present Participle in
a sense approaching that of purpose, see § 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC
534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development
peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a
Jact’ which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive)
defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement
made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus, — non
potest exercitum is continére imperator qui sé ipse ndn continet (indicative) means simply,
that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army ;
whereas non potest exercitum is continére imperator qui sé ipse non contineat (subjunctive)
would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc.,
that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (§ 445).
Thus, in the example just given, qui sé ipse ndn contineat would mean literally, who
would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes
over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force
is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is
extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in
some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of
Characteristic. Thus, ndn sum ita hebes ut haec dicam means literally, J am not dull
in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say
this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result,
the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of. characteristic ;
as, — tantus in ciirid clamor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. ii. 47), such an outcry
was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together.
535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to
indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, capporally where the
antecedent is otherwise wndefined : —
344 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC [§ 536
neque enim tii is es qui nescias (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one as
not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the
relative clause that follows. ]
multa dicunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things which
(such as) I hardly understand.
paci quae nihil habitira sit insidiarum semper est cdnsulendum (Off. i. 35),
we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.
a. A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expres-
sions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply
a negative.
So especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who; quis est qui, who
is there who? —
sunt qui discessum animi 4 corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), there are
some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qui cénsérent (B. C. ii. 80), there were some who were of the opinion, etc.
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Tac. Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who
pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (n. *, below).]
quis est qui id ndn maximis efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does
not extol it with the highest praise ?
nihil vided quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 3), I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostrum extiméscas (Fam. ix. 26. 4), there is no rea-
son why you should dread my coming. .
unde agger comportarl posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was noth-
ing left from which an embankment could be got together.
Nore 1.— After general negatives like ném6 est qui, the Subjunctive is regular;
after general affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indic-
ative sometimes occurs; after multi (ndn nilli, quidam) sunt qui, and similar expres-
sions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the
shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express: —
sunt béstiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtiitis (Fin. v. 38), there are
certain animals in which there is something like virtue.
But, —inventi multi sunt qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent (Off. i. 84),
many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for
their country.
Nore 2.— Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called Relative
Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the
Indefinite Relative in protasis (§ 520).
Note 3.— The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qui: as, —
ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiéscendi fore iiistum arbitrarer (De Or. i. 1), and
there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
b. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow finus and sdlus :
nil admirari prope rés est fina sdlaque quae possit facere et servare beaitum
(Hor. Ep. i. 6. 1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing
that can make and keep one happy.
sdlus es ciiius in victoria ceciderit ném6 nisi armatus (Deiot. 34), you are the
only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
§ 535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 345
e. A clause of Result or Characteristic with quam ut, quam qui
(rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives : —
Canachi signa rigididra sunt quam ut imitentur véritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
maiorés arborés caedébant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxxiii. 5), they cut
trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
Notr.— This construction corresponds in sense to the English too... to.
d. A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or
proviso (cf. § 528. b) : —
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
Catdnis dratidnés, quas quidem invénerim m (Brut, 65), the speeches of Cato, at
least such as I have discovered.
servus est ném6, qui modo tolerabili condicidne sit servitiitis (Cat. iv. 16),
there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
e. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or conces-
sion : —
peccasse mihi videor qui 4 té discesserim (Fam. xvi. 1), I seem to myself to
have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.]
virum simplicem qui nds nihil célet (Or. 230), O guileless man, who hides noth-
ing from us! [Causal.]
egomet qui sérd Graecis litteris attigissem, tamen complirés Athénis diés
sum commoratus (De Or. i. 82), I myself, though I began Greek literature
late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive. ]
Note 1.—In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is ete. It is often preceded
by ut, utpote, or quippe : —
nec consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fécit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor
did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being
one] who had sought, ete.).
Licius, frater éius, utpote qui peregré dépiignarit, familiam diicit (Phil. v. 30),
Lucius, his brother, leads his househdéld, inasmuch as he is a man who has
Sought it out abroad.
convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui né in oppidum quidem nisi perraré
veniret (Rosc. Am. 52), he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since
he did not even come to town except very rarely.
Nore 2.— The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Charac-
teristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the
action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as hindrance
in spite of which (ALTHOUGH).
f. Dignus; indignus, aptus, idjneus take a subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely ut). The negative is nén : —
digna in quibus élabdrarent (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on
(worthy on which they should, etc.).
digna rés est ubi ti nervés intendas tuds (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy
of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).
846 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF RESULT [$§ 585-537
iddneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), fit to obtain.
indigni ut redimerémur (Liv. xxii. 59. 17), unworthy to be ransomed.
NotE 1. — This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose,
but it is more closely related to characteristic.
Nore 2. — With dignus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive : —
fons rivé dare nomen iddneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a source fit to give a name to a
stream.
aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided.
vivere dignus eras (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live.
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that
mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in § 534).
537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so
that (negative, ut non), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut nén, express the result of
the main verb in the form of a modifying clause : —
tanta vis probitatis est ut eam in hoste diligamus (Lael. 29), so great is the
power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pignatur acriter ad novissimum agmen, aded ut paene terga convertant
(B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that
they almost take flight.
multa rimor adfingébat, ut paene bellum confectum vidérétur (id. i. 53),
rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qué, etc.). The antecedent is
expressed or implied in the main clause. .
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre-
sponding demonstrative : — qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on:
nam est innocentia affectid talis animi quae noceat némini (Tusc. iii. 16), for
innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.
sunt aliae causae quae plané efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as
to bring to pass.
nilla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritéte contendere (Tusc. i. 43),
there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.
quis navigavit qui non sé mortis periculd committeret (Manil. $l); who went to
sea who did not incur the peril of death ?
Nore 1.— Since the relative clause of Result is a deyelopment from the relative
clause of Characteristic (§ 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two construc-
tions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause
as one of Characteristic.
Norte 2.— Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tam,
talis, tantus, ita, sic, aded, tisque e6, which belong to the main clause.
§§ 537, 538] - CLAUSES OF RESULT 347
a. A Negative Result is introduced by ut non, ut ném6, qui ndn, etc.,
not by né: —
multis gravibusque volneribus cénfectus ut iam sé sustinére non posset (B. G.
ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.
tanta vi in Pompéi equités impetum fécérunt ut edrum némé consisteret (B. C.
iii. 93), they attacked Pompey’s cavalry with such vigor that not one of
them stood his ground.
ném6 est tam senex qui sé annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M. 24), nobody
is so old as not to think that he can live a year.
Nots.— When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut né
or né is sometimes used as being less positive than ut non :— [librum] ita corrigas né
mihi noceat (Caecina, Fam..vi. 7. 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me.
b. Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a re-
strictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. § 535. d): —
hoc ita est fitile ut né plané inlidamur ab acciisatdribus (Rosc. Am. 55), this
is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful
only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum quod nén désiderés (Cat. M. 47), int nothing is
troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
c. The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the
Infinitive with To or so AS TO or an equivalent : —
tam longé aberam ut non vidérem, I was too far away to see (so far that I
did not see; cf. § 535. c).
Norte. — Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in
a few passages (§ 461. a).
538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely
alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence,
§ 485. c); but, in the negative, Purpose takes né, Result ut non
etc. : —
ciistéditus est né effugeret, he was guarded in order that he micur not escape.
cistdditus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he v1» not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses né quis, né quid, né fillus, né qué, né
quand6, nécubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Result clauses,
ut némé, ut nihil, ut nillus, etc.: —
(1) cernere né quis eds, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one
might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose. ]
né quand6 liberis proscriptérum bona patria reddantur (Rosc. Am. 145), lest
at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their
children.
ipse né qud inciderem, reverti Formias (Att. viii. 8. 7), that I might not come
upon him anywhere, I returned to Formie.
348 SYNTAX: CAUSAL CLAUSES [§§ 538-540
dispositis explératoribus nécubi Romani cdpias tradiicerent (B. G. vii. 35),
having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might
not lead their troops across anywhere.
(2) multi ita sunt imbécilli senés ut niillum offici minus exsequl possint (Cat.
M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to
society. [Result.]
qui summum bonum sic instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtiite coniinctum
(Off. i. 5), who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in com-
mon with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quin, see §559. For Substantive Clauses
of Result, see §§ 567-571.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to
their construction; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in
the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like
propterea), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative
neuter (cf. § 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con-
junction (cf: English that and see. § 222). Its use as a causal particle is an early
special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem
qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at
_ an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical
Latin with nam only), and may, like quand6, have developed from an interrogative to
a relative particle.
Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the
pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum),
from which the causal meaning is derived (cf. cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod
and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (§ 592).
Quandé is probably the interrogative quam (how ?) compounded with a form of the
pronominal stem do- (cf. dum, dé-nec). It originally denoted time (first interrogatively,
then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not
used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed
by the Subjunctive.
540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative,
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or
speaker ; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the
authority of another : —
1. Indicative : —
cum tibi agam gratias quod mé vivere coégisti (Att. iii. 3), when I may thank
you that you have forced me to live.
cir igitur pacem n6l6é ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not wish
Sor peace? Because it is disgraceful. ,
ita fit ut adsint propterea quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia peri-
culum vitant (Rose. Am. 1), so it happens that they attend because they
follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger.
§ 540] CAUSAL CLAUSES 349
2. Subjunctive : —
mihi gratulibare quod audissés mé meam pristinam dignitatem obtinére
(Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had
heard that I had regained my former dignity.
noctii ambulabat Themistoclés quod somnum capere non posset (Tusc. iv. 44),
Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he could not
sleep.
mea mater irata est quia ndn redierim (Pl. Cist. 101), my mother is angry
because I did n’t return.
Nore 1. — Quod introduces either a fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either
the Indicative or_the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact; hence it rarely
takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has refer-
ence to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
Note 2.— Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circum-
stances may have the Subjunctive (§ 592. 3. n.): as, —ego laeta visa sum quia soror
vénisset (Pl. Mil..387), J seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as, —rediit quod
sé oblitum nesci6 quid diceret (Off. i. 40), he returned because he said he had forgotten
something.
Nove 3.—No6n quod, non quia, non quo, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take
the Subjunctive; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself
true, though not the true reason. In the negative, nén quin (with the Subjunctive)
may be used in nearly the same sense as nén quod ndn. After a comparative, quam
quod or quam quod is used: —
pugilés ingeméscunt, noén quod doleant, sed quia profundenda véce omne corpus
intenditur (Tuse. ii. 56), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but
because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a atite of
tension. F
non quia réctior ad Alpis via esset, sed crédéns (Liv. xxi. 31. 2), not because the
route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, ete.
non quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam nén habuérunt -
(Phil. vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will,
but they had not so strong a reason.
haec amore magis impulsus scribenda ad té putavi, quam quo té arbitrarer monitis
et praeceptis egére (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to write to you,
rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought
that you needed advice and suggestion.
a. Quoniam and quandé, since, introduce a reason given on the
authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative : —
locus est 4 mé@, quoniam ita Muréna voluit, retractandus (Mur. 54), I must
review the point, since Murena has so wished.
quandé ita vis, di bene vortant (Pl. Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the
gods bless the undertaking.
quand6 ad m4i6ra nati sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are born for greater things.
Nore. — The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quand6, since, in the causal
sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quand6, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and
indefinite: as, —quandd? hodié, when? to-day ; si quandd, if ever.
350 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [$§ 540-542
b. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quandé
take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent
clause (see § 580).
ce. A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub-
junctive (see § 535. e)..
d, Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 549).
For Substantive Clauses with quod, see § 572.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of rela-
tive origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special idiomatic constructions.!
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows : —
I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quandé, in Protasis (§ 542).
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (§ 543).
- 1. Cum temporal (§§ 545-548).
HT, Clauses with cam { 2. Cum causal or concessive (§ 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§ 551).
V. Clauses with dum, dénec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§§ 552-556).
Conditional Relative Clauses
542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandé, either alone or com-
pounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the
sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf.
§ 514): —
cum id malum nega&s esse, capior (Tusc. ii. 29), whenever you (the indi-
vidual disputant) deny it to be an evil, Iam misled. [Present general
condition. }
quod profectd cum mé nila vis cégeret, facere ndn audérem (Phil. v. 51),
which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me.
[Present, contrary to fact: cf. § 517.]
cum videds eds dolore non frangi, débeds existimare, etc. (‘Tusc. ii. 66), when
you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Pres-
ent general condition: cf. § 518. a.]
cum rosam viderat, tum incipere vér arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw
arose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition: cf. § 518. b.}
id ubi dixisset, hastam in finis edrum émittébat (Liv. i. 32. 13), when he had
said this, he would cast the spear into their territories, [Past General
Condition, repeated action: see § 518. c.]
1 With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some
other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses, § 591.)
§ 543] POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. _ 851
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc.
(543) The particles postquam (postedquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut
semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative
(usually in the perfect or the historical present): —
milités postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis fécére (Sall. Cat. 11),
when the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.
posteaquam forum attigisti, nihil fécisti nisi, etc. (Fam. xv. 16. 3), since you
came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.
ubi omnis idem sentire intelléxit, posterum diem pignae cdnstituit (B. G.
iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he
appointed the next day for the battle.
Catilina, ubi eds convénisse videt, sécédit (Sall. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees
that they have come together, he retires.
Pompéius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acié excessit (B. C. iii. 94), when
Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field.
ut semel 6 Piraeed éloquentia évecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had
set sail from the Pireus.
nostri simul in arid cénstitérunt, in hostis impetum fécérunt (B. G. iv. 26),
our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an
attack on the enemy.
simul atque intrdductus est, rem confécit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought
in, he did the job.
‘a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect
Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things; the Plu-
perfect, an action completed in past time : —
postquam striicti utrimque stabant, ducés in medium précédunt (Liv. i.
23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into
the midst.
P. Africinus posteaquam bis consul et cénsor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Afri-
canus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and
censor.
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultds perficiendi dabatur, ad Pom-
péium transiérunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means
of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.
post diem quintum quam iterum barbari male pignaverant [= victi sunt],
légati 4 Bocchd veniunt (Iug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were
beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.
haec iuventiitem, ubi familidrés opés défécerant, ad facinora incendébant
(Sall. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ubi pericula virtiite prépulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by
their valor.
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cumque, as Indefinite Rela-
tives, see § 542.
852 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [$§ 544, 545
UsrEs oF Cum
544. The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qui. It
inherits from qui its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions,
But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. tum, dum), and its range of usage
was therefore less wide than that of qui; it could not, for example, introduce clauses
of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to
simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses, — conditional,
explicative, cum inversum— all easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qui-clause of
Characteristic, —a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin.
From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by
means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while).
In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past
tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the
present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is
almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use
to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Sub-
junctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indica-
tive) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or
characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the qui-clause of Characteristic, § 534).
Cum Temporal
545. A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of
the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the
main verb occurred : —
-e6 [litud] regidnés diréxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with
it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city.
cum occiditur Sex. Réscius, ibidem fuérunt servi (Rosc. Am. 120), when
Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. [occiditur is historical
present. ]
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellébam, hic providébam animé (Cat. iii. 16),
when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, 1
looked forward to this.
fulgentis gladids hostium vidébant Decii cum in aciem edrum inruébant (Tusc.
ii. 59), the Decit saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed
upon their line.
tum cum in Asia rés magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 19), at that time,
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
Nore 1.— This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times
with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imper-
fect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than
the Subjunctive use defined below (§ 546).
- Norr 2.— This construction must not be confused with that of cum, whenever, in
General Conditions (§ 542).
§ 545, 546] CUM TEMPORAL — 858
a. When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal
clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same
tense as that of the main verb: —
maxima sum laetitid adfectus cum audivi cOnsulem té factum esse (Fam.
xv. 7), I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected
consul.
546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluper-
fect Subjunctive.describes the circumstances that accompanied or
preceded the action of the main verb: —
cum essem Otidsus in Tusculan6, accépi tuas litteras (Fam. ix. 18. 1), when I
was taking my ease in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.
cum servili belld premerétur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was uner the load
of the Servile War.
cum id nintidtum esset, matiirat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he
made (makes) haste.
cum ad Cybistra quinque diés essem moradtus, régem Ariobarzanem insidiis
liberavi (Fam. xv. 4. 6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed
King Ariobarzanes from plots.
is cum ad mé Laodicéam vénisset mécumque ego eum vellem, repente per-
cussus est atrocissimis litteris (id. ix. 25. 8), when he had come to me at
Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.
Nore 1.—This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often
called narrative cum.
Nove 2.— Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it
defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coéxistent state of things (Imperfect
Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluper-
fect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. (§ 543. a).
Nore 3.— The distinction between the uses defined in §§ 545, 546, may be illustrated
by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere).
Here the when-clause defines the time when Cesar had the fever, —namely, in the year
of his Spanish campaign (B.c. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect
Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to
India; here the when-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it
merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered,—namely,
in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose: In Latin we should use the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
Note 4.—The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In
Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some
other reason.
a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a tem-
poral clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the
main clause, cum takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted ; hence
cum is in this use called cum inversum ; —
854 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [$$ 546-549
diés ndndum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infains necatur (Clu.
28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed.
[Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc. ]
iamque lix apparébat cum procédit ad milités (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day was
already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
hdc facere noctii apparabant, cum matrés familiae repente in piiblicum pré-
currérunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the
women suddenly ran out into the streets. 3
547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Pres-
ent Indicative ; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect
Indicative : —
incidunt tempora, cum ea, quae maximé videntur digna esse iiistd homine,
fiunt contraria (Off. i. 31), times occur when those things which seem
especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.
non dubitibd dare operam ut té videam, cum id satis commodé facere poterd
(Fam. xiii. 1), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do
it conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum nén erd (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shall
be no more.
cum véneris, cOgndscés (Fam. v. 7. 3), when you come (shall have come),
you will find out.
548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause
in a general condition (see § 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is
used; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For est cum etc., see § 535. a. n.3.
Cum Causal or Concessive
549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive : +
id difficile ndn est, cum tantum equitatii valeamus (B. C. iii. 86), this is not
difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]
cum sdlitiidd insidifrum et metiis pléna sit, ratid ipsa monet amicitids com-
parare (Fin. i. 66), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason it-
self prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.]
cum primi Ordinés concidissent, tamen dcerrimé reliqui resistébant (B. G.
vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigor-
ously. [Concessive.]
brevi spatid legisnés numerd hominum expléverat, cum initid non amplius
dudbus milibus habuisset (Sall. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled.
out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had
not had more than two thousand. [Concessive. ]
§§ 549-551] ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM 355
Cum causal may usually be translated by since ; cum concessive by
although or while; either, occasionally, by when.
Nore 1.—Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim:
as, — nec reprehend6: quippe cum ipse istam reprehénsidnem non figerim (Att. x.3.),
I find no fault ; since I myself did not escape that blame.
NorrE 2.— These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are
parallel to qui causal and concessive (§535. e). The attendant circumstances are re-
garded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
Norte 3.— In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indic-
ative: as, —quom tua rés distrahitur, utinam videam (Pl. Trin. 617), since your prop-
erty is being torn in pieces, O that I may see, ete.
a. Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory
statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that: —
cum tacent, claimant (Cat. i. 21), when they are silent, they cry out (i.e. their
silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).
gratulor tibi cum tantum valés apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14. 3), I congratu-
late you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
Norsr.— This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time
(§ 545. a).
b. Cum... tum, signifying doth . . . and, usually takes the Indica-
tive ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Sub-
junctive is used (§ 549) : —
cum multa n6én probé, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are many
things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative. ]
cum difficile est, tum né aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult
but even unjust.
cum rés tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum né efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. 1. 19),
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point
(accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive; approaching cum causal. ]
Antequam and Priusquam
550. antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble
those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often
written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb
prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle
quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a rela-
tive clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses)
according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of
purpose (§ 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive.
Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante,
before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam,
but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative,
sometimes the Subjunctive.
356 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§ 551
a. With antequam or prinequam the Perfect Indicative states a
_ fact in past time :—
antequam tuads légi litteras, hominem ire cupiébam (Att. ii. 7. 2), before I
read your letter, I wished the man to go.
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit aduléscéns (Liv. xxxix. 10), and
she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith.
neque prius fugere déstitérunt quam ad flimen pervénérunt (B. G. i. 53), nor
did they stop running until they reached the river.
Norrt.— The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main
clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative
is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and
ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse.
b. With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is com-
mon when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past
time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place : —
ante pigndri coeptum est quam satis instruerétur aciés (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the
Sight was begun before the line could be properly formed.
priusquam tii suum sibi vénderés, ipse possédit (Phil. ii. 96), before you could
sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself.
priusquam télum abici posset aut nostri propius accéderent, omnis Vari aciés
terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men
approached nearer, the whole line about V arus took flight.
Note 1.— The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by se-
quence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (§ 484. c): as, —antequam hominés
nefarii dé med adventii audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perréxi (Planc. 98), before
those evil men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
Notr 2.— After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the
Imperfect: as,— neque ab ed prius Domitiani milités discédunt quam in cOnspectum
Caesaris dédiicatur (B. C. i. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him
until he was (is) conducted into Cesar’s presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive
(as B. G. iii. 18).
ce. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the
Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
ptiusquam dé céteris rébus responded, dé amicitia pauca dicam (Phil. ii. 3),
before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.
non défatigabor antequam illdrum ancipités vids percéperé (De Or. iii. 145),
I shall not weary till I have traced: out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat litterfis mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), before he comes, he will send
a letter.
Nott 1.— The Future Indicative is very rare.
Nore 2.— In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with
antequam and priusquam (cf. § 518. a): as, —in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare,
adhibenda est praeparatio diligéns (Off. i. 73), in all undertakings, before-you proceed
to action, careful preparation must be used.
§§ 562-554] DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD - 357
Dum, Donec, and Quoad
552. Asan adverb meaning for a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly
as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, ndndum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through
correlation (cf. cum... tum, si... sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as
in the English the moment I saw # I understood. Quoad is a compound of the rela-
tive quo, up to which point, withad. The origin and early history of dénec are unknown.
553. Dum and quoad, wntil, take the Present or Imperfect Sub-
junctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy : —
exspectas fortasse dum dicat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for him
to say (until he say). [Dum is especially common after exspectd.]
dum reliquae navés convenirent, ad horam nonam exspectavit (B. G. iv. 23),
- he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him.
comitia dilata [sunt] dum léx ferrétur (Att. iv. 17. 3), the election was post-
-poned until a law should be passed.
an id exspectamus, quoad né vestigium quidem Asiae civitatum atque urbium
relinquatur (Phil. xi. 25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of
the states and cities of Asia?
Epaminondas exercébatur plirimum luctandd ad eum finem quoad stans
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained
himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple
‘standing and fight (in that way).
Nore 1.— Donec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as,—et dixit longé
donec curvata coirent inter sé capita (Aen. xi. 860), and drew it (the bow) until the
curved tips touched each other.
NotrE 2.—Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative
to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this con-
struction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found inearly Latin. Donec, until,
is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indica-
tive, rarely with the Future: —
ego in Arcand opperior dum ista cgndscd (Att. x. 3), I am waiting in the villa at
Arce until I find this out. [This is really dum, while.]
mihi fisque ciirae erit quid agas, dum quid égeris scierd (Fam. xii. 19. 3), I shall
always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall
have known) what you have done.
délicta maidrum lués dénec templa reféceris (Hor. Od. iii. 6. 1), you shall suffer for
the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples.
ter centum régnabitur annos, dénec geminam parti dabit Ilia prolem (Aen. i. 272),
sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall wee birth to
twin offspring.
554. Donec and quoad, wntil, with the Perfect Indicative donot
an actual fact in past time:
donec rediit silentium fuit iva xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned.
fisque ed timui dinec ad réiciendés itidicés vénimus (Verr. ii. 1. 17), I was
anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.
Rodmae fuérunt quoad L. Metellus in prévinciam profectus est (id. ii. 62),
they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellus set out for the province.
858 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [$§ 554-556
Notr.—Dum, wntil, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as,—mansit in condi-
cidne isque ad eum finem dum iiidicés réiecti sunt (Verr. i. 16), he remained true to the
agreement until the jurors were challenged.
555. Dum, ddnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative : —
dum anima est, spés esse dicitur (Att. ix. 10. 3), as long as there is life, there
is said to be hope.
dum praesidia alla fuérunt, in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Rosc. Am. 126), so long
as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dum longius 4 minitidne aberant Galli, plis multitiidine télorum prdficiébant
(B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the Sortifica-
tions, they had the advantage because of their missiles.
donec gratus eram tibi, Persarum vigui rége beatior (Hor. Od. iii. 9. 1), as
long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the
Persians.
quoad potuit fortissimé restitit (B. G. iv. 12), he resisted bravely as long as
he could.
Note 1.— Donec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers.
Nore 2,— Quam diii, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as, —sé oppid6 tam diii
tenuit quam dit in provincia Parthi fuérunt (Fam. xii. 19.2), he kept himself within the
town as long as the Parthians were in the province.
556. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to de-
note continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used : —
dum haec geruntur, Caesari nintiatum est (B. G. i. 46), while this was going
on, a message was brought to Cesar.
haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenés iam ad Elori litus pervénerat (Verr. v.
91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the
coast at Hlorum.
hdc dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while
she was telling it.
Notr. — This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (§ 469).
a. A past tense with dum (usually so dong as) makes the time em-
phatic by contrast; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense
occur where no contrast is intended :
nec enim dum eram vobiscum, animum meum vidébatis (Cat. M. 79), for
while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
coérta est pigna, par dum cénstabant ordinés (Liv. xxii. 47), a conflict began,
well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But,— dum oculés hostium certamen Averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dum tinum adscendere gradum cénatus est, vénit in periculum (Mur. 55),
while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
§§ 656-558] | CLAUSES WITH QUIN AND QUOMINUS 359
Nore. — In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical
usage would require the Indicative, and dénec, until, is freely used in this manner
(especially by Tacitus) :—
dum ea in Samnio gererentur, in Etruria interim bellum ingéns concitur (Liv. x.
18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was
stirred up in Etruria.
illa quidem dum té fugeret, hydrum non vidit (Georg. iv. 457), while she ee Recep
Srom you she did not see the serpent.
dum per vicds déportarétur, condormiébat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being car- .
ried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhénus servat nomen et violentiam cursiis (qua Germaniam praevehitur) ddnec
Ocean6 misceatur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course
(where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
temporibusque Augusti dicendis non défuére decéra ingenia dinec gliscente adii-
latiOne déterrérentur (id. i. 1), for describing the times of Augustus there
was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility
of the age.
For dum, provided that, see § 528.
CLAUSES WITH QUIN AND QUOMINUS
557. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui-né), and when
used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general
negative. Thus, quin ego hic rogem? why should n’t I ask this? implies that there is
no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause,
like nilla causa est or fieri ndn potest. Hence come the various dependent construc-
tions introduced by quin.
Quéminus is really a phrase (qué minus), and the dependent constructions which it
introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with qué and a com-
parative (see § 531. a).
558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and
other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, de-
laying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or
by implication : —
non himana illa neque divina obstant quin socids amicés trahant exscindant
(Sall. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking
captive and exterminating their friendly allies.
ut né Suessiénés quidem déterrére potuerint quin cum his cénsentirent (B. G.
li. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making
common cause with them.
ndn posse milités continéri quin in urbem inrumperent (B. C. ii. 12), that the
soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city.
non reciisat quin iiidicés (Deiot. 43), he does not object to your judging.
neque reciisdre quin armis contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not
refuse to fight.
praeterire non potui quin scriberem ad té (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. ix. 64), I could
not neglect to write to you.
360 SYNTAX: DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS - [§ 558
Tréveri totius hiemis nillum tempus intermisérunt quin légatds mitterent
(B. G. v. 55), the Treveri let no part of the winter pass without sending
ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. v. 58; B. C. i. 78.]
non cinctandum existimavit quin pignaé décertaret (B. G. iii. 23), he thought
he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle. :
paulum 4fuit quin Vdrum interficeret (B. C. ii. 35), he just missed killing
Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill).
neque multum Afuit quin castris expellerentur (id. ii. 35), they came near being
driven out of the camp.
facere ndn possum quin cotidié ad té mittam (Att. xii. 27. 2), I cannot help
sending to you every day.
fieri nill6 modd poterat quin Cleomeni parcerétur (Verr. v. 104), it was out
of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effici ndn possit quin eds dderim (Phil. xi. 86), so that nothing can prevent
my hating them.
a. Quin is especially common with nén dubitd, J do not doubt, non
est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions : —
non dubitaébat quin ei créderémus (Att. vi. 2. 3), he did not doubt that we
believed him.
illud cavé dubités quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20. 6), do not doubt that
I will do all.
quis igndrat quin tria Graecdrum genera sint (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant
that there are three races of Greeks ?
non erat dubium quin Helvétii plirimum possent (cf. B. G. i. 3), there was no
doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.
neque Caesarem fefellit quin ab iis cohortibus initium victdriae orirétur (B. C.
ili. 94), and it did not escape Cosar’s notice that the beginning of.the vic-
tory came from those cohorts.
Nore 1.—Dubitd without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Ques-
tion; so sometimes ndn dubitd and the like: —
non nilli dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. ix. 7), some doubt whether he
is coming through Sardinia.
dubitate, si potestis, 4 qué sit Sex. Réscius occisus (Rosc. Am. 78), doubt, if you
can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitabam tii has ipsas litteris essésne acceptirus (Att. xv. 9), J doubt whether
you will receive this very letter. [{Epistolary Imperfect (§ 479).]
qualis sit futiirus, né vos quidem dubitatis (B. C. ii. 32), and what it (the outcome)
wil be, you yourselves do not doubt.
non dubitd quid sentiant (Fam. xy. 9), I do not doubt what they think.
dubium illi non erat quid futiirum esset (id. viii. 8. 1), it was not doubtful to him
what was going to happen.
Note 2.—Non dubitd in the sense of J do not hesitate commonly takes the Infini-
tive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive : —
nec dubitare illum appellare sapientem (Lael. 1), and not to hesitate to call himasage.
dubitandum n6én existimavit quin proficiscerétur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he
ought to hesitate to set out. rs
quid dubitas iti temporis opportiinitate (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take
advantage of the favorable moment? [A question implying a negative.]
'§§ 558, 559] CLAUSES WITH QUIN AND QUOMINUS 361
b. Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with
né or quéminus (= ut ed minus), especially when the verb is not nega-
tived : —
plira né dicam tuae_mé lacrimae impediunt (Planc. 104), your tears prevent
me from speaking further.
. nec aetas impedit quéminus agri colendi studia tenedmus (Cat. M. 60), nor
does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.
nihil impedit quéminus id facere possimus (Fin. i. 33), nothing hinders us
from being able to do that.
obstitisti né transire cépiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of
the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
NotTE.— Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive :—
nihil obest dicere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it.
prohibet accédere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching.
559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by
quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae,
quod) nén : —
1. Clauses of Result : —
ném6 est tam fortis quin [= qui ndn] rei novitate perturbétur (B. G. vi. 39),
no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
némé6 erat aded tardus quin putaret (B. C. i. 69), no one was so slothful as not
to think, etc.
quis est tam déméns quin sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to
think, etc.?
nil tam difficilest quin quaerend6 investigari possiet (Ter. Haut. 675), noth-
ing’s 80 hard but search will find it out (Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic : —
némé nostrum est quin [ = qui ndn] sciat (Rosc. Am. 55), there is no one of
us who-does not know.
ném6 fuit militum quin vulnerarétur (B. C. iii. 53), there was not one of the
soldiers who was not wounded.
ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed
tears ?
quis est quin intellegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand ?
horum nihil est quin [ = quod non] intereat (N. D. iii. 80), there is none of
these (elements) which does not perish.
nihil est ill6rum quin [ = quod non] ego illi dixerim (Pl. Bac. 1012), there is
nothing of this that I have not told him.
Nop, —Quiz sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut non:
as,—numquam tam male est Siculis quin aliquid facété et commodé dicant (Verr. iv.
95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have ms pleasant
or witty to say.
For quin in independent constructions, see § 449. b.
362 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [$§ 560-563
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as
certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the
term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the
clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The
fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; each
reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences
is to be found in the paratactic use (see § 268) of two verbs like volo abeas, dicdmus
cénsed, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other
verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the
clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, espe-
cially the accusative of cognate meaning (§ 390).
561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
a. A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of
a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
Note 1.— Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be
rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may
be postulabat ut quaestid habérétur. The common English expression for with the
infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as, —it remains for me to
speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut dé belld dicam piratico.
Nore 2.— When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is
subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly
the so-called expletive rr.
562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : —
1. Subjunctive Clauses { a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) (§§ 563, 564).
(ut, né, ut non, etc.). { b. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) (§ 568).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling (§ 572).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word
(§§ 573-576).
at a. With verbs of ordering, wishing, etc. (§ 563).
eee ye Clases { b. Indirect Discourse (§ 579 ff.).
Norte. — The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin
it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of
the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds: (1) in constructions in which it replaces a sub-
junctive clause with ut etc.; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be dis-
cussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (§563) ; for Indirect
Discourse, see § 579 ff.
Substantive Clauses of Purpose
563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative né) are
used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the
Suture.
§ 563] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 363.
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, de-
cree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish : —1
monet ut omnés suspicidnés vitet (B. G. i. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
hortatur eds né animé déficiant (B. C. i. 19), he urges them not to lose heart.
té rogo atque Ord ut eum iuvés (Fam. xiii. 66), I beg and pray you to aid him.
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search.
persuddet Casticd ut régnum occuparet (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to
usurp royal power.
suis imperavit né quod omnin6 télum réicerent (id. i. 46), he ordered his men
not to throw back any weapon at all.
Nore.— With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of
an object clause : —
hortamur fari (Aen. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak.
né quaere docéri (id. vi. 614), see not to be told.
temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turn, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see § 565. a.
a. lubed, order, and vet, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative : —
Labiénum iugum montis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus to
ascend the ridge of the hill.
liberds ad sé addiici iussit (id. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere légatis discédere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants
to leave the work.
vetuére [bona] reddi (Liv. ii. 5), they forbade the return of the goods (that the
goods be returned).
Nortr. — Some other verbs of commanding ete. occasionally take the Infinitive :—
pontem imperant fieri (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to be built.
rés monet cavére (Sall. Cat. 52. 3), the occasion warns us to be on our guard.
b. Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive.
With vold (nd16, mal) and cupid the Infinitive is commoner, and
the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the
same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when
the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing : —
augur fieri volui (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I wished to be made augur.
cupid vigiliam meam tibi tradere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand over my watch
to you.
1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id veni6, caved (né), cénsed, cOgd, con-
céd6, constitud, ciird, décernd, Edicd, flagitd, hortor, imperd, instd, mandd, metud (né),
moned, negotium dé, operam dé, ord, persuaded, petd, postuld, praecipid, precor, proniintiéd,
quaer6, rogé, sciscd, timed (né), vereor (né), vided, vold.
364 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§ 563
ifidicem mé esse, ndn doctérem volé (Or. 117), I wish to be a judge, not a
teacher.
mé Caesaris militem dici volui (B. C. ii. 82. 13), I wished to be called a soldier
of Cesar.
cupid mé esse clémentem (Cat. i. 4), I desire to be merciful. [But regularly,
cupid esse cléméns (see § 457).]
omnis hominés, qui sésé student praestare céteris animalibus (Sall. Cat. 1),
all men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing -
vold té scire (Fam. ix. 24. 1), I wish you to know.
vim volumus exstingui (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down. |
té tua frui virtiite cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your
virtue.
cupi6 ut impetret (Pl. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it.
oumquam optabé ut audiatis (Cat. ii. 15), I will never desire that you shall
hear.
For volo and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see § 565.
ec. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini-
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ;
so often sind : —
permisit ut faceret (De Or. ii. 866), permitted him to make.
concéd6 tibi ut ea praetereads (Rosc. Am. 54), I allow you to pass by these
matters.
tabernacula statui passus ndén est (B. C. i. 81), he did not allow tents to be
pitched.
vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported.
d. Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take
either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : —
constituerant ut L. Béstia quererétur (Sall. Cat. 48), they had determined that
Lucius Bestia should complain.
proelid supersedére statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle.
dé bonis régis quae reddi cénsuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king’s goods, which
they had decreed should be restored.
décernit uti cdnsulés diléctum habeant (Sall. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls
shall hold a levy.
édictd né quis iniussii pignaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none
should fight without orders.
Nore 1.— Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their
construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see
§ 500. 4.
Norse 2.— Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second
Periphrastic conjugation: — Régulus captivés reddendés [esse] non cénsuit (Off. i. 39),
Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal
opinion: captivi non reddendi sunt.]
§§ 563-565] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 365
e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But
conor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive: — —
cira ut quam primum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10. 4), let me know as soon as pos-
sible (take care that I may understand).
dant operam ut habeant (Sall. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their
attention that, etc.).
impellere uti Caesar néminarétur (id. 49), to induce them to name Cesar (that
Cesar should be named).
conatus est Caesar reficere pontis (B. C. i. 50), Cesar tried to rebuild the bridges.
Nore 1.— Coénor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8); cf. miror si ete., § 572. b. Nn.
Note 2.— Ut né occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (ef. § 531): —
cira et providé ut néquid ej désit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with quin and quéminus with verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.
564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with né affirma-
tive and né non or ut negative.
In this use né is commonly to be translated by that, ut and né nin
by that not : —
timed né Verrés fécerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear that Verres has done, etc.
né animum offenderet verébatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should sea
the feelings, etc.
né exhérédarétur veritus est (Rosc. Am. 58), he feared that he should be dis-
inherited.
orator metud né languéscat senectiite (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows
Feeble from old age.
vereor ut tibi possim concédere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you.
haud sané periculum est né ndn mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), there
is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
Note.— The subjunctive in né-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin.
To an independent né-sentence, as né accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed
(cf. § 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vidé né accidat; 6rd né accidat; cavet né
accidat; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timed né accidat becomes let it not hap-
pen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.
565. Vold and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet,
and the imperatives dic and fac often take the paises > with-
out ut: —
vold amés (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love.
quam vyellem mé invitassés (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me!
mallem Cerberum metuerés (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they must exist.
queramur licet (Caec. 41), we are allowed to complain.
fac diligas (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love! [A periphrasis for the imperative dilige,
love (cf. § 449. c).]
dic exeat, tell him to go out.
866 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [$$ 565, 566
Nort 1.—In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic
remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative
and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, how-
ever, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cavé and the sub-
junctive (without né) in Prohibitions (§ 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac.
Notr 2,—Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple
Infinitive ; (8) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4) the Dative and the Infini-
tive (see § 455.1). Thus, J may go is licet eam, licet ire, licet mé ire, or licet mihi ire.
For licet in concessive clauses, see § 527. b.
Note 3.— Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infini-
tive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus J must go is oportet eam, oportet
ire, or oportet mé ire.
a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive
without ut : —
huic mandat Rémos adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Remi.
rogat finem faciat (id. i. 20), he asks him to cease.
Mnésthea vocat, classem aptent socii (Aen. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and
orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
Nots.— The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to
express a command in Indirect Discourse (§ 588).
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes
the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Con-
struction): —
Caesar ut cogndsceret postulatum est (B. C. i. 87), Cesar was requested to
make an investigation (it was requested that Cesar should make an
investigation).
si erat Héraclid ab senadti mandatum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Heraclius
had been instructed by the senate to buy.
si persudsum erat Cluvid ut mentirétur (Rose. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been
persuaded to lie.
put6d concédi nobis oportére ut Graecd verbé aitamur (Fin. iii. 15), I think
we must be allowed to use a Greek word.
né quid eis nocedtur 4 Caesare cavétur (B. C. i. 86), Cesar takes care that no
harm shall be done them (care is taken by Cesar lest, etc.).
a. With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the
subject and the object clause is retained : —
admoniti sumus ut cavérémus (Att. viii. 11 p. 3), we were warned to be careful.
cum monérétur ut cautior esset (Div. i. 51), when he was advised to be more
cautious.
monéri visus est né id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it.
§§ 566-568] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT 867
b. Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive
are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the
subject of the sentence : —
loqui non concéditur (B. G. vi. 20), it is not allowed to speak.
ce. With iubed, vets, and cigs, the subject accusative of the infinitive
becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is
retained as complementary (Personal Construction) : —
adesse iubentur postridié (Verr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the
following day.
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile.
SimOdnidés vetitus est navigare (Div. ii. 134), Simonides was forbidden to sail.
Mandubii exire céguntur (B. G. vii. 78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of facié etc.
(§ 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs
and verbal phrases (§ 569); (8) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate
nominative etc. (see §§ 570, 571).1 .
568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut nén)
are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of
an effort.”
Such are especially facié and its compounds (efficid, conficid, etc.) : —
efficiam ut intellegatis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that
you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).]
commeatiis ut portari possent efficiébat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that
supplies could be brought.
perféci ut 6 régnd ille discéderet (Fam. xv. 4. 6), I brought about his departure
from the kingdom.
quae libertas ut laetior esset régis superbia fécerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance
of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
évincunt instandd ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their
point, —that letters should be sent. [Here évincunt = efficiunt. ]
1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb orig-
mally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely com-
plementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb
(ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or
object of the verb with which they are connected.
2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accédit,
accidit, additur, altera est rés, committd, cnsequor, contingit, efficid, Evenit, facid, fit, fieri
potest, fore, impetré, integrum est, mds est, miinus est, necesse est, prope est, réctum est.
relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest, and a few others .
368 “ SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [8§ 568-571
‘Nore 1.—The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form
a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,—invitus féci ut Flaminiuma é@ senatii éicerem
(Cat. M. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate.
569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of
the following : —
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : —
impetratum est ut in senatii recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. 1), they succeeded
in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortale sit (N. D. iii. 30), it therefore is | made
out that every body is mortal.
2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is
necessary, it is added, and the like (§ 568, footnote) : —
accidit ut esset lina pléna (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it hap-
pened that it was, etc.), [Here ut esset is subject of accidit. |
reliquum est ut officils certémus inter nos (Fam. vii. 31), i remains for us to
vie with each other in courtesies.
restat ut hdc dubitémus (Rosc. Am. 88), it is left for us té doubt this.
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
Norse 1.—The infinitive sometimes occurs: as,—nec enim acciderat mihi opus
esse (Fam. vi. 11. 1), for it had not happened to be necessary to me.
Nore 2.—Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut: as, —concédas necesse
est (Rosc. Am. 87), you must grant.
3. Of est in the sense of it 2s the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic): —
est ut vird vir latius drdinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one
man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
a. Fore (or futiirum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is
often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so
necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem : —
spéro fore ut contingat id ndbis (‘Tusc. i. 82), I hope that will be our happy lot.
cum vidérem fore ut non possem (Cat. ii. 4), when I saw that I should not be able.
570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with
another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun) :—
illud etiam restiterat, ut té in itis édiicerent (Quinct. 33), this too remained:
for them to drag you into court.
571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate
nominative after més est and similar expressions : —
est més hominum, ut ndlint eundem pluribus rébus excellere (Brut. 84), it is
the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things.
§§ 571, 572] INDICATIVE WITH QUOD 569
a. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam
after a comparative (but see § 583. ¢): —
Canachi signa rigididra sunt quam ut imitentur véritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured all rather
than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
b. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case],
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the
subject of abest ; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum: —
tantum abest ut nostra mirémur, ut tisque ed difficilés ac modrési simus, ut
nobis non satis faciat ipse Démosthenés (Or. 104), so far from admiring
my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demos-
thenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of
abest (§ 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum (§ 537); and
the third, after iisque e6.]
c. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and
infinitive (§ 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes :
praeclarum illud est, ut eds. . . amémus (Tusc. iii. 73), this is a noble thing,
that we should love, etc.
véri simile ndn est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he
preferred.
For Relative Clauses with quin after verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.
Indicative with Quod
572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod
(in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the state-
ment is regarded as a fact : —
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium cénferunt (Off. i. 19),
it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, ete. [Here ut conferant
could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and
infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men
do bestow, etc. ]
inter inanimum et animal hdc maximé interest, quod animal agit aliquid
(Acad. ii. 37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and
an animal, that an animal aims at something.
_ quod rediit ndbis mirabile vidétur (Off. iii. 111), that he (Regulus) returned
seems wonderful to us.
accidit perincommodé quod eum nusquam vidisti (Att. i. 17. 2), it happened
very unluckily that you nowhere saw him. |
870 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [$§ 572, 678
opportiinissima rés accidit quod Germ4ni vénérunt (B. G. iv. 13), a very for-
tunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.
praetered quod eam sibi domum sédemque délégit (Clu. 188), I pass over the
fact that she chose that house and home for herself.
mittd quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), I disregard the fact that they were
seized by violence.
Nore. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as sub-
ject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposi-
tion with the subject.
a. A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accu-
sative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as
to the fact that : —
quod mihi dé nostro stati gratularis, minimé miramur té tuis praeclaris operi-
bus laetari (Fam. i. 7. 7), as to your congratulating me on our condition,
we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works.
quod dé dom6 scribis, ego, etc. (Fam. xiv. 2. 3), as to what you write of the
house, I, ete.
b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod
(quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : —
quod scribis. . . gauded (Q. Fr. iii. 1. 9), I am glad that you write.
facid libenter quod eam n6n possum praeterire (Legg. i. 68), I am glad that I
cannot pass it by.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rosc. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice that
this is finished.
qui quia n6n habuit 4 mé turmas equitum fortasse suscénset (Att. vi. 3. 5), who
perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.
molesté tuli té senatul gratids non égisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was displeased
that you did not return thanks to the senate.
Notr. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.}
This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. § 563. e. N.1). Thus,— miror
si quemquam amicum habére potuit (Lael. 54), [wonder if he could ever have a friend.
(Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.]
Indirect Questions
573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and
which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any
expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative (see the third example below).
1 Cf, the Greek Oavudtw el.
8§ 574, 575] INDIRECT QUESTIONS 3871
574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive :
quid ipse sentiam expdnam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think. [Direct:
quid sentid ?] ;
id possetne fierl cOnsuluit (id. i. 82), he consulted whether it could be done.
[Direct : potestne ?]
quam sis audax omnés intellegere potuérunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could under-
stand how bold you are. [Direct: quam es audax !]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account whether I
suffer or not. [Double question. ]
quaesivi 4 Catilina in conventii apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), I
asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Leca’s or
not. [Double question. }
rogat mé quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat mé sententiam, he
asks me my opinion. |
hdc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverécundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubt-
Sul, which of us two is the less modest.
ineerti quatenus Voleré exercéret victdriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far
Volero would push victory. [As if dubitantés quatenus, etc. ]
Nore. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth exam-
ple), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an apposi-
tive (as in the seventh).
575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illus-
trated by the following examples : —
dicé quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing.
dicd quid factiirus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do.
dicd quid fécerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing).
dixi quid facerem, I told you what I was doing.
dixi quid fécissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing).
dixi quid factiirus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do).
dixi quid factiirus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.
a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunc-
tive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation : —
préspicid qui concursiis futiri sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there
will be. [Direct: qui erunt ?]
quid sit futdrum cras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask what will
be on the morrow. [Direct: quid erit or futirum est ?]
posthac nén scribam ad té quid factirus sim, sed quid fécerim (Att. x. 18),
hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have
done. [Direct: quid faciés (or factirus eris)? quid fécisti ?]
Nore. — This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by
using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) remains unchanged in an
Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense : —
872 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [$§ 575, 576
qud mé vertam nescié (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct:
qué mé vertam ?]
neque satis cOnstabat quid agerent (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear what
they were todo. ([Direct: quid agamus ?]
nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut spéret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7. 10),
nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future
participle with sit could not be used.]
incert6 quid peterent aut vitarent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was doubtful
(ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun.
c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and
in poetry : —
vineam qué in agrd cdnseri oportet sic observatd (Cato R. R. 6. 4), in what
soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
d. Nescid quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other),
is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nescié qué (unde, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases
which are practically adverbs : —
mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how).
mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much).
immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much).
siné quam, immensely.
valdé quam, enormously.
Examples are : —
qui istam nescid quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 12), who
greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is.
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped prodigiously.
ita f4t5 nescié qué contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 15), I think it happened so
by some fatality or other.
nam suds valdé quam paucés habet (id. xi. 13 a. 3), for he has uncommonly
Sew of his own.
sané quam sum g4visus (id. xi. 13 a. 4), I was immensely glad.
imm4ane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5), is monstrously at variance.
576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In-
direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object
(Accusative of Anticipation) : —
nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10. 3), you know how slow Mar-
cellus is, [For nésti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. ‘‘ I know thee who
thou art.’’]
Cf. potestne igitur earum rérum, qua ré futiirae sint, iilla esse praesénsid (Div.
ii. 15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they
will occur? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive. }
§§ 576, 577] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 373
Nore. — In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change
of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the
result : —
quidam saepe in parva peciinia perspiciuntur quam sint levés (Lael. 63), it is often
seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some
people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are).
quem ad modum Pompéium oppiignarent a mé indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. i.5), it has
been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown
by me, how they attacked).
a. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the
sense of whether (like if in English, cf. § 572. 6. x.): —
circumfunduntur hostés si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37), the
enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.
visam si domi est (Ter. Haut. 170), I will go see if he is at home.
Norts. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the
clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see
§ 447. a.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
577. ‘The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (ratio obliqua)
is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and
perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms
like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other
person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the
verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily
conforms to the new relation of persons.
The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the
language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any
one — whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that
which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a com-
plete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as
well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a
case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its
object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents
became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which,
though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs
of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as
‘‘The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses.”
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was after-
wards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it became
a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other
languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in
English, where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance
except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate; consequently
no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple
374 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 577-580
sentences. - It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions (§ 574), in informal
indirect discourse (§ 592), and in clauses of the integral part (§ 593) represents the
earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood
of subordination,
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is
simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if
necessary), as in the reporter’s style.
578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original
speaker or writer (Ordtid Récta).
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or
writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are
quoted (Ordatid Obliqua).
Notr.— The term Indirect Discourse (ratio obliqua) is used in two senses. In
the wider sense it includes all clauses—of whatever kind —which express the words
or thought of any person indirecily, that is, ina form different from that in which the
person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indi-
rect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited
in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an
address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Cesar and Livy. In this book
the term is used in the restricted sense.
ForMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE
579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling,
and perceiving,! govern the Indirect Discourse.
NotE.—Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory
Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All
subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive : —
scid mé paene incrédibilem rem pollicéri (B. C. iii. 86), I know that I am
promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct: polliceor. ]
non arbitror té ita sentire (Fam. x. 26. 2), I do not suppose that you feel
thus. [Direct: sentis.]
spérd mé liberdtum [esse] dé metii (Tusc. ii. 67), I trust I have been freed
from fear. [Direct: liberatus sum. ]
1Such are: (1) knowing, scid, cgniscd, compertum habed, etc.; (2) thinking, putd,
existim6, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dicd, niintid, referd, polliceor, prémittd, certidrem facié,
etc.; (4) perceiving, sentid, comperid, vided, audid, etc. So in general any word that
denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the
Indirect Discourse.
§ 680) INDIRECT DISCOURSE 375
[dicit] esse nén nillés quorum auctéritds plirimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he
says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct: sunt non
nilli. . . valet. ]
nisi ifirasset, scelus sé factirum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. ii. 1. 123), he
thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. (Direct:
nisi itiraverd, faciam. |
a. The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in
some word or in the general drift of the sentence : —
consulis alterius ndmen invisum civitati fuit: nimium Tarquiniés régnd
adsuésse; initium @ Priscd factum; régnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc.
(Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tar-
quins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc.
[Here invisum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the
form of Indirect Discourse. }
drantés ut urbibus saltem — iam enim agrés déplératés esse — opem sendtus
ferret (id. xli. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the
cities —for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
b. The verb negé, deny, is commonly used in preference to dicé with
a negative : —
[Stdici] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68),
the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.
c. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing,
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom : —
minatur sésé abire (Pl. Asin. 604), he threatens to yo away. ([Direct: abe,
Iam going away. ]
spérant sé maximum friictum esse captirés (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the
utmost advantage. [Direct: capiémus. ]
spérat sé absolitum iri (Sull. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct:
absolvar. |
quem inimicissimum futiirum esse prdmittd ac sponded (Mur. 90), who I
promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. ([Direct: erit.]
dolor fortitiidinem sé débilitatirum mindtur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to
wear down fortitude. [Direct: débilitabé. ]
confid6 mé quod velim facile 4 té impetratirum (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust I
shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct: quod vol6, impe-
trabo.]
Norr.— These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (§ 456)
So regularly in early Latin (except spér6): —1
pollicentur obsidés dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages.
promisi ddlium vyini dare (Pl. Cist. 542), I promised to give ajar of wine.
1 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.
876 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [$$ 580, 581
d, Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These
take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a
Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense.
1. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse) : —
laudem sapientiae statud esse maximam (Fam. v. 15), J hold that the glory of
wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse. ]
rés ipsa monébat tempus esse (Att. x. 8. 1), the thing itself warned that it
was time. [Cf. monére ut, warn to do something. ]
fac mihi esse persudsum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of that.
[Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.]
hdc volunt persuddére, non interire animas (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con-
vince that souls do not perish.
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result): —
statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that
10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. § 563). ]
huic persuddet uti ad hostis transeat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pass
over to the enemy.
Pompéius suis praedixerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. tii. 92),
Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Cesar’s attack.
dénintiavit ut essent animd parati (id. iii. 86), he bade them be alert and
steadfast (ready in spirit).
Nore. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Dis-
course, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these
verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (§ 563. d).
581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly ex-
pressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:
orator sum, J am an orator; dicit sé esse Sratdrem, he says he is an orator.
Note 1.— But the subject is often omitted if easily understood : —
igndscere impridentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab aliis quaerit: reperit esse véra (id. i. 18), he inquires about these same
things from others ; he finds that they are true.
Norr 2.— After a relative, or quam (than), if the verb would be the same as that of
the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative : —
té suspicor eisdem rébus quibus mé ipsum commoyéri (Cat. M. 1), I suspect that
you are disturbed by the same things as I.
confidd tamen haec quoque tibi ndn minus grata quam ipsds libros futiira (Plin.
Ep. iii. 5. 20), Z trust that these facts too will be no less pleasing to you than
the books themselves.
NotrE 3.—In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indi-
rect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb: —
vir bonus et sapiéns ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and wise man says
he is prepared, etc. [In prose: ait sé esse paratum.]
sénsit medids délapsus in hostis (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the
foe. [In prose: sé esse délapsum.]
§§ 582, 583] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 377
582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction
may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal con-
struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of
incomplete action : —
beaté vixisse videor (Lael. 15), I seem to have lived happily.
Epaminondas fidibus praeclaré cecinisse dicitur (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondas is
said to have played excellently on the lyre.
multi idem factiri esse dicuntur (Fam. xvi. 12. 4), many are said to be about
to do the same thing. [Active: dicunt multés factirés (esse). |
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to
have joined words with a certain skill.
Bibulus audiébatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Bibulus was in
Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est. ]
céterae Illyrici legidnés seciitiirae spérabantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the
legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.
vidémur enim quiétiiri fuisse, nisi essémus lacessiti (De Or. ii. 280), it seems
that we should have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.).
[Direct : quiéssémus . . . nisi essémus lacessiti. ]
Norz. — The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs
which are not properly verba sentiendi etc.: as, —colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am.
ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
a. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal
construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular : —
traditum est etiam Homérum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition,
too, that Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi ndn vitidsam, sed dicendum est pliné nillam esse rem
ptblicam (Rep. iii. 48), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that
the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all.
Nors. — An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued
with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9).
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing
statements which are regarded as true independently of the quo-
tation, takes the Indicative: —
quis neget haec omnia quae vidémus dedrum potestadte administrari (Cat. iii.
21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of
the gods?
cfius ingenid putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 20), by whose
genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated.
{Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is
felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae gessisset would
mean, what Marius claimed to have done. ]
378 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [$§ 588, 584
Note. — Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect
Discourse; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall
use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. §§ 591-593).
a. A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized : —
factum éius hostis periculum . . . cum, Cimbris et Teutonis. . . pulsis, nén
minérem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus vidébatur (B. G.
i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the
Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than
the commander himself.
b. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a
demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and
hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see
§ 308. f): —
Marcellus requisisse dicitur Archimédem illum, quem cum audisset inter-
fectum permolesté tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought
for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly
distressed. [quem = et eum.] if
cénsent tinum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex qué [= et ex ed]
illud natira cénsequi (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one of us is a part
of the universe, from which this naturally follows.
Nors. — Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive:
as,—quem ad modum si non dédatur obses pro ruptd foedus sé habitirum, sic déditam
inviolatam ad suds remissirum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not
given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her
unharmed to her friends.
c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com-
parative with quam : —
addit sé prius occisum iri ab e6 quam mé violatum iri (Att. ii. 20, 2), he adds
that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
ndnne adfirmavi quidvis mé potius perpessiirum quam ex Italia exitirum
(Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather
than leave Italy ?
Nore. — The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see § 535. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse
584, The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive! is used
in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present,
past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which
the Indirect Discourse is introduced : —
1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see § 164. 3. ¢.
§§ 584, 585] TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 3879
cadé, I am falling.
dicit sé cadere, he says he is falling.
dixit sé cadere, he said he was falling.
cadébam, I was falling; cecidi, I fell, have fallen;
cecideram, I had fallen. :
dicit sé cecidisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen.
dixit sé cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen.
cadam, I shall fall.
‘dicit sé casiirum [csse], he says he shall fall.
dixit sé casiirum [esse], he said he should fall.
ceciderd, I shall have fallen.
dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen.
a. All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imper-
fect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
Norsr.— Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the
Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct
Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after memini when referring to a matter of actual
experience or observation: as, —té@ memini haec dicere, I remember your saying this
(that you said this). [Direct: dixisti or dicébas.]
b. The present infinitive posse often has a future sense : —
totius Galliae sésé potiri posse spérant (B. G. i. 3), they hope that they shall
be able to get possession of all Gaul.
Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse fol-
low the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 482). They depend for
their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect
Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dixit sé Rémam itirum ut cdnsulem vidéret, he said he
should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, vidéret follows the sequence
of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, itirum [esse], on which it directly
depends.
Nors. — This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which
stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, § 588), and to that in questions (§ 586).
a. A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the
Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a pri-
mary tense (cf. § 485. 7); so regularly when these tenses would have
been used in Direct Discourse : —
380 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 585, 586
Tarquinium dixisse ferunt tum exsulantem sé intelléxisse quis fidds amicés
habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile
hehad found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb
of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and
intelléxisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary. ]
tantum prodfécisse vidémur ut 4 Graecis né verbdrum quidem copia vincerémur
(N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of
words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
Nore 1.— The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning ‘the Perfect
Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for
an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary; if it stands for
a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (§ 485. a).
Nore 2.— The so-called imperfect infinitive after memini (§ 584. a. N.) takes the
secondary sequence: as, —ad mé adire quosdam memini, qui dicerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6), J
remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.
b. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend-
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying
etc. is in a secondary tense : —
dicébant . . . totidem Nervids (pollicéri) qui longissimé absint (B. G. ii. 4),
they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
Norte. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time
in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesentatio). In the course of a long pas-
sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes fol-
lowing the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be
seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, ete.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam,
Questions in Indirect Discourse
586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the
Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the
Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying
its own answer, is put in the Infinitive : —
quid sibi vellet ? ciir in suds possessidnés veniret (B. G. i. 44), what did he
want? why did he come into his territories? [Real question. Direct:
quid vis ? ciir venis ?]
num recentium iniiridrum memoriam [sé] dépdnere posse (id. i. 14), could
he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical ‘Question.
Direct: num possum ?]
quem signum datirum fugientibus ? quem ausirum Alexandré succédere (Q. C.
: iii. 5. 7), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed
Alexander? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit . . . audébit.]
§§ 586-589] COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 381
Note 1.—No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive
in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as
rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer’s point of view: —
utrum partem régni petitirum esse, an totum éreptiirum (Liv. xlv. 19. 15), will you
ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole ?
quid tandem praetori faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought a pretor to
have done?
quid repente factum [esse] ciir, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), what had suddenly happened,
that, etc.?
Norte 2.— Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indi-
rect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 574). This is true even when the verb
of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question
may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15).
For the use of tenses, see § 585.
587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) in the Direct Dis-
course is always retained in the Indirect : —
cir aliquoés ex suis amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose
some of his men? [Direct: cir amittam ?] .
Commands in Tadivact Discourse
588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in
Indirect Discourse : —
reminiscerétur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 15), remember (said he) the ancient
disaster. [Direct: reminiscere. ]
finem faciat (id. i. 20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac.]
ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help.
a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct dis-
course, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
Norte 1.— Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct
discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on
the verb of saying etc. (cf. §§ 483, 585).
Nore 2.— A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by né with
the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when n6li with the infinitive would be used
in the Direct: as,—né perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled.
[Direct: ndlite perturbari. But sometimes néllet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed
as follows : —
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the
Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative,
is always in some form of the Infinitive.
382 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§ 589
a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future
conditions (§ 516. 4) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future
Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future
conditions in the Indirect Discourse.
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are —
1. Simple Present Condition (§ 515):—
(dixit) si ipse populd R6m4no non praescriberet quem ad modum sud iiire
iiterétur, ndn oportére sésé 4 populd ROm4ano in sué itire impediri (B. G.
i. 36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they
should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman
people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: si n6n praescrib6 ... ndn
oportet. |
praedicavit . . . si pice iti velint, iniquum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), he asserted
that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt
..est. Present tense kept by repraesentatid (§ 585. b. n.).]
2. Simple Past Condition (§ 515): —
non dicam né illud quidem, si maximé in culpa fuerit Apolldnius, tamen in
hominem honestissimae civitaétis honestissimum tam graviter animad-
verti, caus& indicta, ndn oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I will not say this
either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable
man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely
without having his case heard. [Direct: si fuit . . . nén oportuit.]
8. Future Conditions (§ 516): —
(dixit) quod si praetered ném6 sequatur, tamen sé cum s6l4 decima legidne
itirum (B. G.-i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go
with the tenth legion alone. [Direct: sisequétur... ibd. Present tense
by repraesentatid (§ 585. b. n.).]
Haeduis sé obsidés redditirum non esse, neque eis... bellum illatirum, si
in ed manérent, quod convénisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent :
si id n6dn fécissent, longé eis fraternum ndmen populi Romani afuti-
rum (id. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the
Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement
which had been made, and paid tribute yearly ; but that, if they should
not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from
aiding them. [Direct: reddam... inferam...si manébunt.. . pen-
dent: si non fécerint . . . aberit.]
id Datamés ut audivit, sénsit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa-
rid sé relictum, futirum [esse] ut céteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat.
6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he
had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody
else would follow his example. [Direct: si exierit . . . sequentur. ]
§ 589] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 383
(putavérunt) nisi mé civitate expulissent, obtinére sé ndn posse licentiam
cupiditatum suarum (Att. x. 4), they thought that unless they drove me
out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct:
nisi (Cicerénem) expulerimus, obtinére ndn poterimus. }
b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 517) into the Indi-
rect Discourse, the following points require notice : —
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by com-
bining the Participle in -irus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the pe-
riphrasis futirum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
' 4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are : —
nec sé superstitem filiae futiirum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis éius
in auxilid commiliténum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50. 7), and that he should
not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct: non
superstes essem, nisi habuissem. ]
illud Asia cégitet, nillam 4 sé neque belli externi neque discordiarum do-
mesticarum calamitaitem Afutiiram fuisse, si hc imperid n6n tenérétur
(Q. Fr. i. 1. 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc.,
would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct:
abesset, si ndn tenérer. }
quid inimicitidrum créditis [mé] exceptirum fuisse, si Insontis lacessissem
(Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if
I had wantonly assailed the innocent? [excépissem .. . si lacessissem. }
invitum sé dicere, nec dictiirum fuisse, ni caritas rel piiblicae vinceret (Liv.
ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love
for the state prevail. [Direct: nec dixissem. . . ni vinceret. ]
nisi ed tempore quidam niintii dé Caesaris victdrid . . . essent allati, existi-
mabant plérique futirum fuisse uti [oppidum] amitterétur (B. C. iii. 101),
most people thought that unless at that time reports of Cesar’s victory
had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct: nisi essent
allati . . . dmissum esset. ]
quorum si aet4s potuisset esse longinquior, futirum fuisse ut omnibus per-
fectis artibus hominum vita érudirétur (Tusc. iii. 69), if life could have
been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in
its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset . . . érudita esset. ]
at plérique existimant, si Acrius insequi voluisset, bellum e6 dié potuisse
finire (B. C. iii. 51), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow
up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day.
[Direct : si voluisset . . . potuit.]
Caesar respondit .. . si alictius i iniiiriae sibi cdnscius fuisset, ndn fuisse dif-
ficile cavére (B. G. i. 14), Cesar replied that if [the Roman people] had
been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take
precautions. [Direct; si fuisset, nin difficile fuit (§ 517. c).]
}
384: SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES © [$§ 589-591
Norte 1.—Jn Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not dis-
tinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may
keep them distinct.
Note 2.— The periphrasis futiirum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when
there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Cesar or Cicero.
Note 3.— Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to ex-
press the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples
of this use occur in classic authors: as, — Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque
Carnutés, etc., neque Eburdnés tanta cum contemptidne nostra ad castra ventirés esse
(B. G. vy. 29), Titurius cried out that if Cesar were present, neither would the Car-
nutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt.
[Direct : si adesset . . . venirent.]
590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing
principles in a connected address : —
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
Si’ pacem populus Rémanus cum
Helvétiis faceret, in eam partem itirés
atque ibi futirds Helvétids, ubi eds
Caesar constituisset atque esse voluis-
set: sin belld persequi persevéraret,
reminiscerétur et veteris incommodi
‘populi Romani, et pristinae virtiitis
Helvétidrum. Quod improévisé tinum
pagum adortus esset, cum ei qui flimen
transissent suis auxilium ferre n6dn pos-
sent, né ob eam rem aut suae magn6d
opere virtiti-tribueret, aut ipsds déspi-
ceret: sé ita 4 patribus maidribusque
suis didicisse, ut magis virtiite quam
dold* contenderent, aut insidiis niteren-
tur. Qua ré né committeret, ut is locus
ubi constitissent ex calamitaite populi
Rém4ni et internecidne exercitis n6-
men caperet, aut memoriam proderet.
—B. G. i. 13.
DIRECT DISCOURSE
Si picem populus Romanus cum
Helvétiis faciet, in eam partem ibunt
atque ibi erunt Helvétii, ubi eds ti
constitueris atque esse volueris: sin
bell6 persequi persevérabis, reminiscere
[inquit] et veteris incommodi populi
R6émani, et pristinae virtiitis Helvé-
tidrum. Quod imprivisé finum pagum
adortus es, cum ei qui fliimen transie-
rant suis auxilium ferre ndn possent, né
ob eam rem aut tuae magn6 opere Vir-
titi tribueris, aut nds déspexeris: nos
ita 4 patribus maidribusque nostris didi-
cimus, ut magis virttite quam dol6 con-
tendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quaré
ndli committere, ut hic locus ubi consti-
timus ex calamitite populi Romani et
internecidne exercitiis nédmen capiat,
aut memoriam prodat.
INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES
591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive —
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the
speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equiva-
lent Infinitive (Attraction).
1 See note on Indirect Discourse (§ 577).
§ 592] INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE 385
Informal Indirect Discourse
592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it
expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or
speaker : —
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a
command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in
the form of Indirect Discourse : —
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that
is fit.
huic imperat quads possit adeat civitaétés (B. G. iv. 21), he orders him to visit
what states he can.
hune sibi ex anim6 scriipulum, qui sé diés noctisque stimulat ac pungit, ut
évellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this
doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative
clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in évellatis, but is an
assertion made by the subject of postulat. ]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of
saying, or some modifier of it : —
si quid dé his rébus dicere vellet, féci potestatem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished
to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance.
tulit dé caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law con-
cerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the
Appian Way.
nisi restituissent statués, vehementer minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them
violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause,
‘“‘that he will inflict punishment,’’ is contained in minatur. ]
iis auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suébis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he,
promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= polli-
citus sé auxilium latirum, etc. ]
prohibiti6 tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibébat pactidni (Verr. iii. 37),
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the
bargain.
3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a rela-
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 540): —
Paetus omnis librds qués frater suus reliquisset mihi ddn4vit (Att. ii. 1. 12),
Petus presented to me all the-books which (he said) his brother had left.
Nore. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other cir-
cumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may
be in the Subjunctive (§ 540. n.2). Here belong also ndn quia, ndn quod, introducing a
reason expressly to deny it. (See § 540. n. 3.)
386 SYNTAX: INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES [§ 593
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an
equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded
as an integral part of that clause : —}
imperat, dum rés iidicétur, hominem adservent: cum iidicifta sit, ad sé ut
addticant (Verr. iii. 55), he orders them, till the affair should bé decided,
to keep the man; when it is judged, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tam dissolité animé est, qui haec cum videat, tacére ac neglegere
possit (Rosc. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit that, when he sees
these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ?
mos est Athénis laudari in cOntidne eds qui sint in proeliis interfecti (Or.
151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who
have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut laudentur. ]
a. But adependent clause may be closely connected grammatically
with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative,
if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : —
quodam mod6 postulat ut, quem ad modum est, sic etiam appellétur, tyrannus
(Att. x. 4.2), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called,
a tyrant.
natiira fert ut eis faveimus qui eadem pericula quibus nds perfincti sumus
ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those
who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.
né hostés, quod tantum multitiidine poterant, suds circumvenire possent
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should
be able to surround his men.
si mea in té essent officia sdlum tanta quanta magis 4 té ipsd praedicari
quam 4 mé ponder§Ari solent, verécundius 4 té . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6),
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.
Norte 1.— The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize
the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infini-
tive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.
Norte 2.—It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse
and the Integral Part. Thus in imperavit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but
not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being
a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is
evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main
clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as
is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. Ina result clause this
is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (§ 534), to
which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the
subjunctive.
SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 387
594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX
. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or
thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 282).
. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their
nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (§ 286).
. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succes-
sion —also medius, (céterus), reliquus— usually designate not what
object, but what part of it, is meant (§ 293).
. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that
in -um being used partitively, and that in -i oftenest objectively
(§ 295. b).
. The Reflexive Pronoun (sé), and usually the corresponding possessive
(suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sen-
tence or clause (§ 299).
. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns
must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pro-
nouns (§ 302. a).
. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take
an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and
case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 302. e).
. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Num-
ber, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in
which it stands (§ 305).
. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (§ 316).
. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs
(§ 321).
. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed
by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 332).
. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, —as in nonne, —
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a
negative answer (§ 332. b).
. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 339).
. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 340).
. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same
person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 342).
. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an
object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (§ 343).
388
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
81.
32.
33.
SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§ 594
The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a
thing consists (§ 344).
The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is
modified by an adjective (§ 345).
Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to
which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, § 346).
Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object
(Objective Genitive, § 348).
Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing,
guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives;
and verbals in -ax, govern the Genitive (§ 349. a, b, c).
Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or
the Genitive of the object (§ 350).
Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive
of the thing (§ 351).
Verbs of accusing, condemning, ard acquitting take the Genitive of
the charge or penalty (§ 352).
The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action
(Indirect Object, § 361).
Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ;
also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten,
pardon, and spare, take the Dative (§ 367).
Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae,
pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the
indirect object (§ 370).
The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession
(§ 873).
The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the
person on whom the necessity rests (§ 374).
The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the
general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, § 376).
Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially
of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 381).
The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another
Dative of the person or thing affected (§ 382).
The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness,
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 384),
§ 594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 389
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative
(§ 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred
meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other man-
ner (Cognate Accusative, § 390).
36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and
the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direet
object (§ 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in
addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov-
erned by the preposition (§ 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusativés, one of
the Person, and the other of the Thing (§ 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 397. e).
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusa-
tive (§§ 424. c, 425).
41) Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Abla-
tive (Ablative of Separation, § 400).
42) The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source
from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists
(§ 403).
43, The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause
(§ 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Abla-
tive with 4 or ab (§ 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying
than (§ 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is
used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action
(§ 409).
48. The deponents, iitor, fruor, fungor, potior, and véscor, with several of
their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 410).
49. Opus and iisus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 411).
50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with.
cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 412).
390
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59-
60.
61.
62.
63.
SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§ 594
Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum
(§ 413).
With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is
used to denote the degree of difference (§ 414).
The quality of a.thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective
or genitive Modifier (§ 415).
The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 416).
The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which any-
thing is or is done (§ 418).
The adjectives dignus and indignus take the Ablative (§ 418. 5).
A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in
the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action
(Ablative Absolute, § 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the ain 5: in the
ablative absolute construction (§ 419. a).
Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative; time how
long by the Accusative (§ 423).
Relations of Place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, dé, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
8. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
(§ 426.)
With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and ris, the
relations of place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. (§ 427.)
The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express
an exhortation, a command, or a concession (§§ 439, 440).
The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present
tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished
in present time, the ere wei as unaccomplished in past time
(§ 441).
The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation,
or (2) an impossibility of the thing’s being done (Deliberative Sub-
Junctive, § 444).
§ 694] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES - 391
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or
conceivable (§ 446).
65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (§ 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by ndli with the
Infinitive, (2) by cavé with the Present Subjunctive, Ne by né with
the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used
with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with
the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (§ 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their
meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Comple-
mentary Infinitive, § 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other
expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect
Discourse, see § 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration,
and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, § 463).
71. SEqueNcE or TeEnsEs. In complex sentences, a primary tense in
the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive
in the dependent clause; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or
Pluperfect (§ 483).
72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the
time of the verb in their clause (§ 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in
many of the constructions of nouns (§§ 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose
(§ 509).
75. The Supine in -i is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns
fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification (§ 510).
76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take
the Subjunctive (§ 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative
né (ut né), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is
otherwise undefined (§ 535).
79. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and iddneus, take a Subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 535. /).
892 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES . [§ 594
80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that
(negative, ut nén), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
(§ 587).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker ;
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of
another (§ 540).
82. The particles postquam (postedquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut semel),
simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually
in the perfect or the historical present) (§ 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indica-
tive dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb
occurred (§ 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded
the action of the main verb (§ 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 549).
For other concessive particles, see § 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is
put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate
clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect
Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future
with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Dis-
course is introduced (§ 584).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc-
tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect
Discourse (§ 588).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the
thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal
Indirect Discourse, § 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infini-
tive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part
of that clause (Attraction, § 593).
For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see §512 ff. (Scheme in § 514.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 533.
§§ 595-597] ORDER OF WORDS 393
ORDER OF WORDS
595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the
arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative
importance of the ideas in a sentence.
596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the
Predicate last. Thus,—
Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homé sed varius in omni genere vitae fuit
(Nep. Paus. 1), Pausanias the Lacedemonian was a great man, but in-
consistent in the whole course of his life.
Notrre.— This happens because, from the speaker’s ordinary point of view, the sub-
ject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other
things to be spoken of. 3
a. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself
last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the
monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed
by some single word of the predicate.
597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the
speaker’s mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.
This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in Eng-
lish by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).
a. The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words
is illustrated in the following passages :—
apud Xenophéntem autem moriéns Cyrus maior haec dicit (Cat. M. 79), mv
XEnopPuon too, on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Cyrus quidem haec moriéns ; n6s, si placet, nostra videdmus (id. 82), Cyrus,
to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed ; let us, if you please, con-
sider our own case.
Cyrus quidem apud Xenophintem ed serméne, quem moriéns habuit (id.
80), Cyrus, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on
his death-bed.
Nors.— This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied,
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except
in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence
is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would
mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has
all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best
actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Ceesar’s Gallic War, if rendered soas to bring
out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus :—
394
GAUL,} in the widest sense, is di-
vided? into three parts,? which are
inhabited* (as follows): one® by the
Belgians, another® by the Aquitani,
the third by a people called in their
own? language Celts, in ours Gauls.
Tues ® in their language,? institutions,
and laws are all of them? different.
The GAULS # (proper) are separated?
from the Aquitani by the river Garonne,
ORDER OF WORDS
[§ 597
Gallia est omnis divisa in partis
tris, quarum inam incolunt Belgae,
aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsdrum
lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellan-
tur. Hi omnés lingua, institiitis, légi-
bus inter sé differunt. Gallds ab
Aquitanis Garumna flimen, 4 Belgis
Matrona et Séquana dividit. Hdrum
omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, prop-
terea quod 4 culti atque himanitate
from the Belgians by the Marne and
Seine. Of THESE }° (rRIBEs) the bray-
est of all!* are the Belgians, for the
reason that they live farthest > away
1 GAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like.
2 Divided: opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the
country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact
that Cesar later speaks of the Galli in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two
tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense.
8 Parts: continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to
any other number, but into parts at all.
4 Inhabited : emphatic as the next subject, ‘‘ The inhabitants of these parts are, etc.”’
5 One: given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close
connection with quarum.
6 Another, etc.: opposed to one.
7 Their own, ours: strongly opposed to each other.
8 THESE (tribes): the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head
the names previously mentioned.
9 Language, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points
which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say
“these have a different language, different institutions, different Jaws.”’
10 All of them: the emphasis on ail marks the distributive character of the adjec-
tive, as if it were ‘‘ every one has its own, etc.”’
11 GAULS: emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other
tribes.
12 Separated: though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet
it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that
it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the
_ Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other.
18 Of THESE: the subject of discourse.
14 All; emphasizing the superlative idea in “‘ bravest”’; they, as Gauls, are assumed
to be warlike, but the most so of ail of them are the Belgians.
15 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic
place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effemi-
nating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live
farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which
would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has
already been anticipated by the construction of culti and still more by longissimé, so
that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus,— ‘‘ because
the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them.”
§ 597]
from the crvILIzATION and REFINEMENT
of the Province, and because they are
Least! of all of them subject to the
visits of traders,? and to the (conse-
quent) importation of such things as *
tend to soften‘ their warlike spirit ;
and are also nearest 5 to the Germans,
who live across the Rhine,® and with
whom they are incessantly? at war.
For the same reason the HeLverTiAns, as
well, are superior to all the other Gauls
in valor, because they are engaged in
almost daily battles with the Germans,
either defending their own boundaries
from them, or themselves making war
on those of the Germans. Of aL THIS
country, one part—the one which,
as has been said, the Gauls (proper)
occupy — BEGIns at the river Rhone.
Its boundaries are the river Garonne,
the ocean, and the confines of the Bel-
gians. It even REACHES on the side
of the Sequani and Helvetians the river
Rhine. Its general direction is towards
the north. The Bererans begin at
the extreme limits of Gaul; they reach
(on this side) as far as the lower part
ORDER OF WORDS
395
provinciae longissimé absunt, minimé-
que ad eds mercatdrés saepe comme-
ant atque ea quae ad efféminandés
animés pertinent important, proximi-
que sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhénum
incolunt, quibuscum continenter bel-
lum gerunt. Qua dé causa Helvétii
quoque reliqués Gallés virtiite praecé-
dunt, quod feré cotidianis proeliis cum
Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis
finibus eds prohibent, aut ipsi in e6rum
finibus bellum gerunt. Edrum ina
pars, quam Gallés obtinére dictum |
est, initium capit 4 flimine Rhodand;
continétur Garumna flimine, Oceand,
finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab
Séquanis et Helvétiis flimen Rhénum ;
vergit ad septentridnés. Belgae ab
extrémis Galliae finibus oriuntur:
pertinent ad inferidrem partem fli-
minis Rhéni; spectant in septentrid-
nem et orientem sdlem. Aquitania
a Garumna flimine ad_ Pyrénaeds
montis et eam partem Oceani quae
est ad Hispainiam pertinet; spectat
inter occasum sdlis et se ptentridnés.
of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward.
AguiTanta extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and thai part of the
ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.
6. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The
apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are
cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and
so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it
were, in a new one.
1 LEAsT: made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (§ 598. f).
2 Traders: the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to culti and himanitate.
3 Such things as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the
fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders.
4 Soften: cf. what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have
less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted.
5 Nearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special
usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (§ 598. f).
6 Across the Rhine: i.e. and so are perfect savages.
7 Incessantly: the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as
if it were “‘and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them.”
396 ORDER OF WORDS [§ 598
598. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows : —
a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes
first : —
1. Adjective and Noun: —
omnis hominés decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not).
Licius Catilina ndbili genere natus fuit, magna vi et animi et corporis,
sed ingenid malé pravoque (Sall. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a
NOBLE family, with Great force of mind and body, but with a NaTURE
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are
the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns
being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant
to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the
prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus mak-
ing a chiasmus.1]
2. Word with modifying case : —
quid magis Epaminondam, Thébandrum imperatorem, quam victériae Thé-
bandrum consulere decuit (Inv. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, com-
mander of the TurBans, have aimed at more than the victory of the
Thebans ?
lacrima nihil citius aréscit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR.
ném6 feré laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of cLory
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory).
b. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative,
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words
to which they belong : —
cum aliqua perturbatione (Off. i. 137), with some disturbance.
hdc ind praestimus (De Or. i. 32), in rH1s one thing we excel.
céterae feré artés, the orHER arts.
Notrr.— This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the
emphatic place: —
causa aliqua (De Or. i. 250), some CASE.
stilus ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known stYLE of yours (in an antithesis; see
passage). [Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.] ‘
ROdmam quae apportata sunt (Verr. iv. 121), what were carried to RoE (in contrast
to what remained at Syracuse).
c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 284. b), it regularly
stands first, or at any rate before its subject : —
est viri magni ptinire sontis (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to pun-
ish the guilty.
1 Se called from the Greek letter X (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement
of the words. Thus, $x? (see f below).
§ 598] ORDER OF WORDS 397
d. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1)
because the idea in it is emphatic; or (2) because the predication of the
whole statement is emphatic; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic : —
(1) dicébat idem Cotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotta used to say the same thing (opposed
to others’ boasting).
idem fécit aduléscéns M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was pone by
Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before. ]
facis amicé (Lael. 9), you act kindly. [Cf. amicé facis, you are very KIND
(you act KINDLY). ]
(2) prdpénsior benignitas esse débébit in calamitdsds nisi forte erunt digni
calamitate (Off. ii. 62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortu-
nate unless perchance they REALLY DESERVE their misfortune.
praesertim cum scribat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he poxrs say
(in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]
(3) fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325),we have ceasep to be Trojans, Troy
is NOW NO MORE.
loquor autem dé comminibus amicitiis (Off. iii. 45), but I am spEaKIne Now
of common friendships.
e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by
giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the
less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places : —
plirés solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons.
qués 4misimus civis, eds Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), wHat fellow-citizens
we have Lost, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maximas tibi omnés gratis agimus (id. 33), we att render you the WARMEST
thanks.
haec rés inius est propria Caesaris (id. 11), rH1s exploit belongs to Cesar
ALONE.
obiirgatiinés etiam non numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 186), occa-
SIONS FOR REBUKE @/so SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.
f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs
either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order
(chiasmus) : —
(1) rérum cdpia verborum cdpiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), anuNnDANCE of MAtT-
TER produces COPIOUSNESS Of EXPRESSION.
(2) légés supplicid improbés afficiunt, défendunt ac tuentur bonds (Legg. ii.
13), the laws visIT PUNISHMENTS upon the wicKeD, but the coop they
DEFEND and PROTECT.
Norr.— Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inarti-
ficial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, ‘‘The women were all
drowned, they saved the men.”
non igitur itilitaitem amicitia sed itilitas amicitiam ednsecita est (Lael. 51), tt is
not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon
Sriendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the
parallel order.] (See also p. 395: longissimé, minimé, proximi.)
898 ORDER OF WORDS [$§ 598, 599
g- A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within
the phrase (cf. a) : —
dé commini hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the UNIVERSAL
memory of man.
h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attri-
bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis) : —
et superiectd pavidae natarunt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11).
Notre.— This is often joined with chiasmus: as,—arma nondum expiatis tincta
erudribus (id. ii. 1. 5). /
i. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic
ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a promi-
nence out of proportion to their importance : —
dictitabat sé hortulds aliqués emere velle (Off. iii. 58), he gave out that he
wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliqués is less emphatic than emere,
but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulis. ]
j. The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may
come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover of more
emphatic words : —
consul ego quaesivi, cum vis mihi essétis in cdnsilid (Rep. iii. 28), as consul
I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.
falsum est id tétum (id. ii. 28), that is all false.
k. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order : —
rés publica; populus Rémanus ; honoris caus; pace tanti viri.
Notrr.— These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an
arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus,
senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but
became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
t. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name
or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place : —
[dixit] vénalis quidem sé hortés nin habére (Off. iii. 58), [said] that he did n’t
have any gardens for sale, to be sure.
m. Kindred words often come together (figura etymologica) : —
ita sénsim sine sénsii aetfis senéscit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually, without
being perceived, man’s life grows old.
Special Rules
599. The following are special rules of arrangement: —
a. The negative precedes the word it especially affects; but if it belongs
to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb; if it is espe-
cially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. f. Nn.)
§§ 599-601] STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD 399
b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem,
vér0, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second
word is emphatic ; gone never first, but after the emphatic word; igitur
usually second; né... quidem include the emphatic word or words.
c. Inquam, inigatt;' are always used parenthetically, following one or more
words. So often créd6, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
d. (1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their
nouns; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun
and its adjective or limiting genitive : —
quem ad modum ; quam ob rem; magnd cum metii; omnibus cum copiis;
nulla in ré (cf. § 598. 7).
e. In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : —
qués 4misimus civis, eds Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom
we have lost, etc.
f. Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the
sentence : —
cum vos mihi essétis in cdnsilid (Rep. iii. 28), when you attended me in
counsel.
Structure of the Period
600. Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other
by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sen-
tence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a
whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.
An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated,
sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose;
but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage :—
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat.— Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short
clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin,
on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation
among all its parts is carefully indicated.
601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to
be observed : —
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not
in a subordinate one: —
Hannibal cum recénsuisset auxilia Gadés profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), when
Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz.
400 ORDER OF WORDS [§ 601
Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alid undique abscissa, cum tentassent, prae-
ter cétera adversa, locd quoque iniqué ad pignam congressi, iniquidre
ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad precés 4 certamine versi
dédit6 imperatére traditisque armis, sub iugum missi, cum singulis
vestimentis, igndminiae cladisque pléni dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here
the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circum-
stances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a
number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subor-
dinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a com-
plete picture in one sentence. }
b. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind
of the speaker ; so, usually, cause before result ; Purpose, manner, and the
like, before the act.
c. In coérdinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some
antithesis indicated by the position of words.
d. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction
of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such
change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, —the less
important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles
or of subordinate phrases : —
quem ut barbari incendium effiigisse vidérunt, télis Gminus missis inter-
fécérunt (Nep. Alc. 10), when the barbarians saw that he had escaped,
THEY threw darts at u1m at long range and killed u1m.
celeriter cénfect6 negotid, in hiberna legidnés redixit (B. G. vi. 8), the mat-
ter was soon finished, anv he led the legions, etc.
e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it,
is avoided unless a different case is required : —
dolérem si ndn potueré frangere occultabé (Phil. xii. 21), if I cannot conquer
the pain, I will hiderr. [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]}
f. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succes-
sion of long and short syllables. ‘Thus, —
quod scis nihil prddest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166), what you know
is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.
Nors. —In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by
their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this,matter than in other
forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clause
should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
§§ 602, 603] QUANTITY OF VOWELS 401
PROSODY
QUANTITY
602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been some-
what like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural
quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like
music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables; and the Romans bor-
rowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry
does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical
strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not
regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely differ-
ent system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character
of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equiva-
lent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ; and a long syllable
is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 608. c-e).
The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables — as of short a in pater or of long a in
mater —can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the
general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to
assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced
them so. ‘The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is
ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets; but the ancient grammarians give some
assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways, —
by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. N.).
Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the
Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of
Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek,
and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point,
the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
GENERAL RULES
603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. §§ 9-11):
Quantity of Vowels
a. Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as, via, trahd.
- Exceptions. —1. In the genitive form -ius, i is long: as, utrius, nillius. It
is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c).
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between
two vowels: as, diéi; otherwise usually short, as in fidéi, réi, spéi.
Nore. — It was once long in these also: as, plénu® fidéi (Ennius, at the end of a hex-
ameter). A is also long before i in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulai.
8. In the conjugation of fid, i is long except when followed by er. Thus, fid,
fiébam, fiam, but fieri, fierem ; so also fit (§ 606. a. 3).
4, In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diph-
thong, and retains its original long quantity: as, Trées (Tpdes), Thalia (Oadeia),
hérdas (npwas), 4ér (dnp).
402 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§ 608
Nore. —But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as,
Académia, choréa, Maléa, platéa.
5. In dius, in éheu usually, and sometimes in Diana and dhe, the first vowel is
long.
b. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long: as, foedus, cui,’ aula.
Exception. —The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before
a vowel: as, praé-ustis (Aen. vii. 524), praé-eunte (id. v. 186).
Nors.—U following 4, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following vowel
(see § 5. N. 2). For 4-i5, ma-ior, pé-ior, etc., see §11. d and n.
c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long: as, nil,
from nihil; cdgd for tco-agd; mAl6 for ma-vold.
Nore. — Two vowels of different syllables may be run together without full con-
traction (synizésis, § 642): as, déinde (for deinde), meos (for meds); and often two
syllables are united by Synzresis (§ 642) without contraction: as when pariétibis is
pronounced paryétibus.
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as, inst6, infans, signum.
Quantity of Syllables
e. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: as,
ca-rus, 6-men, foe-dus.
f. Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is
followed by two consonants or a double consonant: as, adventus, cortex.
But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may
be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or alacris; patris or patris.
Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their nat-
ural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position.
Note 1.— The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a
word beginning with two consonants.
Notr 2.— A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in
biiugis, quadriiugis) : see § 11. d.
Norte 3.— Compounds of iacid, though written with one i, commonly retain the
long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a con-
sonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by posi-
tion on the principle of § 11. e.
obicis hosti (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iy. 549).
inicit et saltii (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 552).
Proice téla mani (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836).
Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and preposi.
tions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel:
(1) cir an|nds Sbilcis (Claud. iv C. H. 264).
(2) réicé ci|pellas (Ecl. iii. 96, at end).
Nore 4.— The y or w sound resulting from synxresis (§ 642) has the effect of a con-
sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluvidrum (fluvyorum). Conversely,
when the semiyowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, siliiae, for silvae.
' * 1 Rarely dissyllabic cifi (as Mart. i. 104. 22).
§ 604] FINAL SYLLABLES _ 403
FINAL SYLLABLES
604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows: —
a. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: as, mé, ti, hi, né.
1. The attached particles -né, -qué, -vé, -cé, -pté, and ré- (réd-) are short; sé-
(séd-) and di- arelong. Thus, sécédit, séditid, exercitumqué rédicit, dimitts. But
re- is often long in réligid (relligi6), rétuli (rettuli), répuli (reppuli).
b. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sil, 6s (Gris), bis,
par, vas (vasis), vér, vis.
Exceptions. — cdr, £1, lac, mél, 5s (ossis), vas (vadis), vir, tdt, qudt.
c. Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, 4n, in, cis, néc. But cras,
cir, én, non, quin, sin—— with adverbs in c: as, hic, hiic, sic — are long.
d. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin-
gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, e&
stellA (nominative), cum eA stella (ablative); friistra, voca (imperative),
posted, triginta.
Exceptions. — ia, ita, quid, puta (suppose); and, in late use, triginta etc.
e. Final e is short: as in niibé, diicité, saepé.
Exceptions. — Final e is long —1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the
first and second declension, with others of like form: as, alté, longé, miseré, aperté,
saepissimé. So feré, fermé.
But it is short in ben®, malé ; inferné, superné.
2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidé (also famé), facié, hodié, quaré
(qua ré).
3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension: as, cété ; and in some
other Greek words: Phoebé, Circé, Andromaché, etc.
4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, vidé.
But sometimes cavé, habé, tacé, valé, vidé (cf. § 629. b. 1).
f. Final i is long: as in turri, fili, audi.
Exceptions. — Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi,
quasi, sicuti, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alexi.
g- Final o is common: but long in datives and ablatives; also in nouns
of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the
time of Ovid.
Exceptions. — citd, mod} (dummod5), immd, profects, egd, dud, cedd (the i impera-
tive); so sometimes oct, ilicd, etc., particularly in later writers.
h. Final uis long. Final y is short.
i. Final as, es, os, are long; final is, us, ys, are short: as, nefas, ripés,
servos (accusative), honés; hostis, amiciis, Tethys.
404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§$§ 604-606
Exceptions. —1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives: as, lampadds; and
in ands.
2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav-
ing a short vowel in the stem?: as, milés (-itis), obsés (-idis), — except abiés, ariés,
pariés, pés; in the present of esse (és, adés) ; in the preposition penés, and in the
plural of Greek nouns: as, hérdés, lampadés.
8. os is short in compés, imps ; in the Greek nominative ending: as, barbitis ;
in the old nominative of the second declension: as, servés (later servus).
4. is in plural cases is long: as in bonis, nobis, vobis, omnis (accusative plural).
5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, vis (with quivis etc.), velis, malis, ndlis,
edis ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth
conjugation: as, audis ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indica-
tive or perfect subjunctive).
6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative
plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having a
(long) in the stem: as, virtis (-iitis), inciis (-idis). But peciis, -iidis.
j- Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short.
Thus, amat, amatiir; donéc, fac, prociil, iubar.
Exceptions. —hic (also hic); alléc; the ablatives illic, etc.; certain adverbs in
-C: a8, illic, istiic; lién, and some Greek nouns: as, aér, aethér, cratér.
Perfects. and Perfect Participles
605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the
first syllable long: as, itivi, iitum (itivd), vidi, visum (vided); figi
(fiigid); véni (vénid).
Exceptions. —bibi, dédi, fidi, scidi, stéti, stiti, tili; citum, ditum, itum, litum,
quitum, ratum, riitum, situm, situm, stitum. In some compounds of std, statum
is found (long), as praestatum.
a. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short; the
vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cécidi (c4d6),
didici (discd), piipiigi (pung6), ciiciirri (currd), téténdi (tendd), mdmbrdi (mor-
ded). But cécidi from caed6, pepédi from péds.
Derivatives
606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are : —
a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity: as, 4m6, 4ma-
visti; génus, géneris.
Exceptions. —1. bos, lar, mas, par, pés, sal, — also arbiés, — have a long vowel
in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bdvis etc.).
1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular.
§§ 606, 607] RHYTHM 405
2. Nouns in -or, genitive -dris, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as,
hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these
nominatives are often found long.)
8. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m,
r, ort: as, amém, amér, dicerér, amét (compare amémus), dicer&t, audit, fit.
Nore. — The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in
the classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened: as, acer, Acerbus. So dé-iérd and
pé-iérd, weakened from iiro.
6. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel
quantity (see § 17): as, dicd (cf. maledicus) ; diicd (diix, diicis) ; fid6 (perfidus) ;
Vox, vocis (vcd); léx, légis (1ég6).
ec. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them:
as, oc-cidd (c4dd), oc-cidd (caedd), in-iquus (aequus).
Nore. — Greek words compounded with wpé have o short: as, prdphéta, prdldgus.
Some Latin compounds of prd have o short: as, proficiscor, préfiteor. Compounds with
ne yary: as, néfas, négd, néqued, néquam.
RHYTHM
607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables
pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress.
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri-
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper
intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different
degrees; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun-
ciation of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in
which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand,
—as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, — was not so restricted. But the purely
metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native
forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most
part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures
of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely
followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In
neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures;
and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is
disturbed.
The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
required for their pronunciation, along syllable having twice the metrical value of a
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length,
or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that
are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of
three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less
than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one
406 PROSODY: RHYTHM [$§ 607, 608
short (see § 608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been
slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appar-
ent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the
place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This
could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of
Cesura and Dizresis in prosody (§ 611. }, c).
Measures
608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into
equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet.
The most natural division of musical time is into measures con-
sisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also
distinguished measures of five equal parts.
Norr. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or
the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent
(see § 611. a).
a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called
a Mora. It is represented by the sign wu, or in musical notation by the
eighth note or quaver ¢)-
6. A long syllable is regularly equal to two more, and is represented
by the sign —_, or by the quarter note or crotchet (?)-
c. A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three
or four more. Such a syllable, if equal to three more, is represented
by the sign _ (or dotted quarter (i if equal to four, by 4 (or the half
note or minim, ~).
d. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.
f. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses,
to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the
sign A; one of two more by the sign A.
g- One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begin-
ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrisis or prelude.*
The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.
1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol-
lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem
that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its
structure, or which, at least, accented the ‘second syllable rather than the first.
§ 609] MEASURES 407
609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to-
gether with their musical notation, are the following : —
a. TripLe oR Unequat Measures ($)!
1. Trochee (4 vu = p>: as, régis.
2. Iambus obs : as, diicés.
(v 8 PP
3. Tribrach? (U UU eer as, hdminis.
b. DouBLE on EquaL MEASuRES (2)
1. Dactyl (Luv oa of EP: as, cOnsiilis.
2. Anapest (VU vu — i fF as, mOnitos.
8. Spondee (_ _ =f ~P: as, régés.
c. S1x-TIMED MEASURES (#)
1. Ionic a m@idre(_ _$ Uv a i r e°: as, confecérdt.
2. Ionic & mindre(U UV _ _ = ey if (: as, rétiilissent.
3. Choriambus (_ vu uv — at aa ra as, contilérant.
d. QuInARY OR Hemroxic® MEAsures (})
1. Cretic Reedy lend oT: x [i as, consiilés.
2. Peon primus (_Uvuvy “nf Pe te as, consilibis.
3. Peon qudrtus (U UU fe fear (>: as, tinéri.
4. Bacchius io hcg ad i (>: as, dmicos.
1 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.
2 Not found asa fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.
8 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 14, or of 2 to 3.
408 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§ 609
Nore. —Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic
(vu vu); Amphibrach (U — V); Antibacchius (__— Vv); Proceleusmatie (Uy UU Vv);
the Molossus (__ __ _); the 2d and 3d Pxon,'having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d
place, with three short ones; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, having a short syllable in
the 1st, 24, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones,
Irrational Feet
e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time,
but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur.
They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have
their normal ratio.1 Such are: —
Trrational Spondee :
(in place of a Trochee) 4 zh as be r .
(in place of an Iambus) > 4
Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) :
rece RP DR oe PRD
Cyclic Anapest (in place of an Iambus) :
Pi ea of ar ah ak
The apparent dactyl > J u, as a substitute for an iambus, and the
apparent anapest. 4 U >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently
in the dramatic writers.
Norr.— Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with
instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing.
It must be borne in mind that in ancient music— which in this differs widely from
modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The
lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author.
To this day a poet is said conventionally to ‘‘ sing.”
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the
time, though not the twne, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however,
as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to
certain laws of so-called ‘‘ Rhythmic,’’ as will be explained below. In reading ancient
verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of
Syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure; and to remember
“that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be
distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but
read metrically.
1 It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by
the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot.
§§ 610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409
Substitution
610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi-
tuted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short
ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one.
In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the
latter, to be resolved : —
a. A Spondee (_ _) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ u uv) or an
Anapest (UV uv _); and a Tribrach (U u U) may take the place of a
Trochee (_ uv) or an Iambus (VU _). The optional substitution of one
long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign so.
6b. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables; but for con-
venience the mark of accent is placed on the first : —
nine ex|périar | sitne &|céto | tibi cdr | Acré in | péctdjré. — Pl. Bac. 405.
LS (o> [2 Labo > (2 SPS
The Musical Accent
611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice
(the musical accent) is called the Thesis; the unaccented part is
called the Arsis.!
a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat).
It is marked thus: 4 u vu.
6. The ending of a word within a measure is called Cesura. When
this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cesura of the verse,
and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.
¢. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is
called Dizresis.
1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting down (@éo1s, from rlOnu, put, place) of
the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (‘‘ downward beat’’), and the Arsis the
raising (&pors, from delpw, raise) of the foot (‘upward beat”). By the Latin gram-
marians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of
ameasure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of
Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accord-
ance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical
accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the
rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind.
The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition
which was true only of iambic or anapestic.
410 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§ 612
VERSIFICATION
THE VERSE
612. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of feet set in a
recognized order —is called a Verse.
Nore. — Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs),
but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic
Tetrameter by the Dizresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Czsura.
a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, hay-
ing a pause to fill the measure; when the end syllable is not lacking, the
verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
b. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a
pause :? it is then said to be long by Diastole : —
nostrér” obruimur, —oriturque miserrima caedés. — Aen. ii. 411.
ce. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short
(syllaba anceps).
Scansion and Elision
d. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the
rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansi6,
a climbing or advance by steps, from scand6).
Nors. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the meas-
ure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words
themselves, as is often done in scanning.
e. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel
or with h. This is called Elision (bruising).*
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, how-
ever, they should be sounded lightly.
1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like
manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or proversus), which means straight ahead.
2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being
caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.
8 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes
adopted in English, particularly in the older poets :—
1’ inveigle and invite th’ unwary sense. — Comus 538.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a
consonant (ef. § 15. 7) :—
senid confectu’ quiéscit.—Enn. (Cat. M. 14).
§§ 612-615] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 411
Nore. —Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synalepha (smearing).
Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a
vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding).
f. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner
when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis
(squeezing out) : —
monstr“” horrend™”, inform’, ingéns, cui limen adémptum.
— Aen. iii. 658.
Note 1.—Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before
the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
Norr 2.—The monosyllables d0, dem, spé, spem, sim, std, stem, qui (plural), and
monosyllabic interjections are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic
yerse. Elision is often evaded by skiJful collocation of words.
g. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a spe-
cial emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus
(gaping).
Nore. — The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.
FORMS OF VERSE
613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or funda-
mental foot: as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic; and from
the number of measures (single or double) which it contains:
as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter.
Nore. —Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapzstic verses are measured not by single feet,
but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.
614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order.
Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic
(from Sappho), Aleaic (from Alezus), Archilochian (from Archilo-
chus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
DactyLic VERSE
Dactylic Hexameter
615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theo
retically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : —
biwe) kiwaolL|puws4us|lun Las
Ierireririerircrircrir tl
412 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§ 615
Nortr.— The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee
standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.
a. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
b. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot; the verse is then called
spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.
Thus in Ecl. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrémentum.
c. The hexameter has regularly one principal cesura — sometimes two —
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.
1. The principal czsura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis)
of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See
examples in d.
2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot.
In this case there is often another czsura in the second foot, so that the verse
is divided into three parts: —
parté fé|réx || ar|dénsqu® Scii|lfs || et | sibia | cola. — Aen. v. 277.
Nore. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of czsuras is
the break in the sense.
A cesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A ceesura
occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of
the third and fourth verses ind). A casura may also be found in any foot of the verse,
but a proper cxsural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.
When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a dizresis) is sometimes
improperly called bucolic cesura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.
d. The first seven verses of the Aneid, divided according to the fore-
going rules, will appear as follows. The principal cesura in each verse is
marked by double lines : —
Armé yijrumqué c&{n6 || Trdjiae qui | primis &b | dris
Italijam f4|t6 prdfii|gus || La|vinéiqué | vénit
litdra&, | mult”™ iljl¢ et ter|ris || iac|tatiis &t | alts
vi siipé|rum || sae|vae mémd|rem Ii|ndnis Sb | irdém ;
mult& qud|qu® et bell|ld pas|sus || dum | condérét | urbém,
infer|retqué dé|ds Lati|6, || géntis | undé Lajtinum,
Albajniqué pa|trés, || at|qu® altae | moeni% | Romae.
1. The feminine cesura is seen in the following : —
Dis géni|ti pdtijéré: || té[nent médi[* omnia] silvae. — Aen. vi. 131.
Notsr. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : —
Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired AZthiop people,
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver,
Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athené,
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.
—Kingsley’s Andromeda.
§§ 616, 617] ELEGIAC STANZA — 413
Elegiac Stanza
616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses, —a Hexame-
ter followed by a Pentameter.!
The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it
omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot : —
we oO Ie a TE Ae es ee as eee
Bales ils cees sh sail dosha pceaaratone
a. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses, the
second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
b. The Pentameter has no regular Cesura; but the first half-verse
must always end with a word (dieresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a
pause to complete the measure.?
c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza :—
cum siibit | illijus || tris|tissim& | noctis i|magé
qua mihi | supréjmum { || tempiis in | urbé fiilit, 7
cum répé|td noc|tem || qua | tot mihi | cara réjliqui,
labitiir | ex Sciijlis A || nunc qudqué | gutt’ mélis. 7
iam prodpé | lix Adéjrat || qua | mé dis|cédéré | Caesar
finibiis | extré|mae ( || iussérat | Ausdniljae. 7
— Ov. Trist. i. 3.
Norr. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of
which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have
its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, — epistolary,
amatory, and mournful, — and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been
illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German: —
In the Hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain’s | silvery | column ;
In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.
Other Dactylic Verses
617. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used
by the lyric poets.
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapzsts), as follows: —
[-vvilovvl—ll_-lvv—lyvell
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preced-
ing syllable: —
Auvltuv|[uilzuvuvlt4Zuv|Z4a
414 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§ 617, 618
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the
Alemanian Strophe, as follows : —
6 for|tés pélidraqué | passi
mécum | saepé vilri, || nunc | vind | pellité | ciiras ;
cras in|géns ité|rabimiis | aequoér.
— Hor. Od. i. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12).
b. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pentame-
ter verse. Itis used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First
Archilochian Strophe : —
diffii|géré ni|vés, || rédéjunt iam | gramind | campis,
arboéri|busqué cd|mae ;
miitat | terra vilcés || et | décrés|centia | ripads .
flimind | praetéréjunt. — Hor. Od. iv. 7.
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with
iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 626. 11.
IAMBIC VERSE
Iambic Trimeter
618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic
dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double
iambus (iambic dipody). The cesura is usually in the third foot.
SLL S pew 2PoAye
Nore. — The sign &-4 denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee (>)
for an iambus (v-“).
a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde-
pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Jambic
Strophe, as follows : —
(1) iam i@” éfficd|ci || dé mantis | sciéntiaé
suppléx &t dro || régn& pér | Prdsérpinaé,
pér ét Diajnae || nén mdvén|ds nimind,
pér dtqué lfb|rés || cdrmintm | valéntitim
défix% caé|l6 || dévdca|ré sidéra,
Canfdi&, par|cé || vécibus | tandém sicrfs,
citimqué rét\ré || rétrd sél|vé tirbiném. — Hor. Epod. 17.
The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement
in English : —
Oh! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery,
Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly!
§ 618] IAMBIC TRIMETER-~ 415
(2) béatiis i1)lé I qui proctl | négotifs,
ut prised gens | mortdliim,
patérnd riijra || bibits éxlercét sitis,
soliitiis 6m|ni féndré ;
néqu® éxcita|tur || classicé | milés triicf,
néqu® hérrét ijrattim maré. — Hor. Epod. 2.
b. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> +)
or its equivalent (a cyclic anapest ~ VU“ or an apparent dactyl > % u,
§ 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody.
A tribrach (U 4 uv) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the
last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic
(w % vu) may be substituted in any foot except the last : —*
6 licls Al|mé réctor || ét | caelf déciis!
qu’ altérnd cér|ra spatia || flém|mifér? dmbiéns,
illistré laé|tis || éxséris | terris c&piit.
—Sen. Herc. Fur. 592-94.
quid quaéris? dn|nés || séxagin|ta natiis és.
— Ter. Haut. 62.
hdméd ome himAjni || nil 4 m? 4lijenam piitd.
_ vel mé moné|ré hoc || vél percdén|tari pita.
—id. 77, 78.
ce. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last
iambus : —
| ge ae a I rw ee ae ee
aequ? ést béaltiis || dc pdé|m% ctim scrfbit:
tam gatidét fn | sé, || tamqué s? {p|sé mfratiir.
— Catull. xxiii. 15, 16.
Notr.— The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis: as, —
gerhy ft olevt vile
d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : —
eect GT ae ee Pere ee
It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is
shown in the following : —
Vulcéniis 4r|dens || frit 6fjfieinds. — Hor. Od. i. 4.
or in English : —
On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. — Scott.
1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse
is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies. ‘
416 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§ 619
Other Iambic Measures
619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : —
a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septéndrius). This consists of
seven and a half iambic feet, with diwresis after the fourth and with the
same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter : —
n@™ jdefre® arcés|sor, niiptias quod m? ddpard4jri sénsit.
quibus quidém quam fici(lé potiiérat || quiésci s* hic | quiéssét!
—Ter. And. 690, 691.
- The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
f> 4 >4 | >4 vAll>4+u+4l>4vKl
Iw VU eS VvulyuGvuvtllyu4r>+4zlu4+vK]l
Its movement is like the following : —
In géod king Charles’s gélden days, when léyalty no harm meant.
— Vicar of Bray.
b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octdndrius). This consists of
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter.
Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue : —
dicdt am daré | nds Phérmiéjni || niptum né | suscénséit ;
et magis ess® aye” EPL || qu’ ipsi sit fami|liaridr.
— Ter. Ph. 720, 721.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
| EI fe PARTY fie Uk AEE Beet A ee | Pe Ae het Aiea a AL oe ra
|
V)
Sepa De len al Meee A ee Ot De Fo el
c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used
in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet.
It is used only in chorures :—
quondm criién|t’ Maénas,
praecéps 4m6|ré saévG,
rapitir quod {m|pdténti
ficinis pirat | fiiréré ?— Sen. Med. 850-853.
Norse. — Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a down-
ward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse
with anacrusis (§ 618. c. N.).
§ 620] TROCHAIC VERSE be 417
TROcHAIC VERSE
620. ‘The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram-
eter Catalectic (Septéndrius), consisting of four dipodies, the last
of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly dieresis after the
fourth foot : —
>,
Bik Sy WL Ob Oy os Set. Ata, Leta ae 4
In musical notation : —
sf CP CIF CECI OF CIPO LT:
dd t? advénio, spém, silitem, || cénsii@, aixili”™ éxpéténs.
— Ter. And. 319.
In English verse : —
Téll me nét in motrnful nimbers || life is bit an émpty dredm.
— Longfellow.
a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed
only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach 4 u vu, or an irrational
spondee “ >, cyclic dactyl 4 UU, or apparent anapest 4 uv >, may be
substituted for any of the first six feet; a tribrach for the seventh : —
itide” hibét pétijs” dc vestitum: || tim consfmilist | dtque eg.
stiri, pés, std|tird, ténstis, || dciili, nasum, | vél libra,
malae, méntum, | baérbd, cdllus; || tétus! quid ver|bfs dpust ?
si tergim cilcatricésum, || nihil hoc similist | similis.
—Pl. Am. 443-446.
The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows : —
WGP GL SLA > 2) Sfp 42> Sie > ps twain}
ew es (64 PES Oe LO oe oy ae AY
oN ah SP nn Pe Se ue ak See ee pe
tet rts, ola | So oerw RAG URAL
6. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octénarius), consisting of four
complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.
Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.
ec. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in
combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : —
nén Sbiir né|que atréiim. [Dimeter Catalectic.]
mea rénf|dét fn ddmé | lictindr. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.]
— Hor. Od. ii. 18.
418 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§ 621-623
MrxEp MEASURES
621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different
ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind
(compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music); or (2) single feet
of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd
feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § 609. e).
When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical
series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: —
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody) : —
iZscol|tcL2aco(t2coll{~vjzul|232q
sdlvitiir | Acris hijéms gra|t& vicé || véris | ét Fajvéni.—Hor. Od. i. 4.
Nore. —It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure
seems more probable.
2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim);
Iambic Dimeter : —
ite Ne Po 2 ee a Ge
scribéré | vérsicii|lés |] Améré pér|culsim griivi. — Hor. Epod. 11. 2.
LOoGAG:DIC VERSE
623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions
irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. § 609. e), are called Loga-
cedic. The principal logacedic forms are —
1. Logacedic Tetrapody (four feet): Giyconic.
2. Logacedic Tripody (three feet): PHeREcRATIC (often treated as a
syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
8. Logacedic Dipody (two feet): this may be regarded as a short Phere-
cratic.
Nore. — This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of
prose: hence the name Logacedic (\éyos, dowdy). These measures originated in the
Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not
belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed
on the basis of the three forms given above: viz., Logacedic systems consisting respec-
tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logacedic Pentapody consists of five
feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
§§ 624, 625] LOGACEDIC VERSE 419
624. Each logacedic form contains a single dactyl,? which may
be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be
catalectic or acatalectic : —
Glyconic Pherecratic
i ||Ov| ul 4vul4 ill [Yul 4 vu lz)
i. ||] vl vl] 4vyl4 (ll | ul vu [4 (vy) |lor
| Auli vu |[4l|4A
ii. ||] 2u] 2uvul| ivi (vil
IS vl 4)
Nors. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) (“Vu | 4), if catalectic, appears to
be a simple Choriambus (_v uv |__ A); and, in general, the effect of the logacedic
forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin
metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They
may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as
logacdic measures; and that course is followed here.
625. The verses constructed upon the several Logacedic forms
or models are the following : —
1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic) : —
APL v le Viele CIOS CIC CI iam
Rémae | principis | trbijtim.
In English : —
Férms more réal than living man. — Shelley.
Notr.—In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is
always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee (_ >).
2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic) : —
Hee loss Le AE ope Gel tbe Gf
témpérit |6rai | frénis. — Hor. Od. i. 8.
Notr.—It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by
protracting the last two syllables: —
Selec bat le RE
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls,
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi-
tated by the Romans as distinct metres.
.
420 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§ 6265
8. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened) :—
erro CIe CN
Térriiit | Grbém. — Hor.
Or perhaps : —
enero 8 9 pi
4, Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic) :—
poeeigtier So)4 Sela
cris ddnfbéris haédé. — Hor.
Often scanned as follows : —
4ea(|Hv[4o
5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Phere-
eratic catalectic) :—
I4A>Ie vite vl4vlZal
Maécénfs Ativis édité régibiis. — Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logaedic Dipody
interposed) :—
IA >|evivilevivlevl4vI Za
ti né quaésiéris—scfré néfis—quém mihi, quém tibf.— Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaewdic Pentapody, with dacty] in the third place):—
J2ZvI4Z>J4IwolZvIivisal
intégér vitaé scdlérfsqué pfiriis. — Hor.
Or in English : —
Brilliant hdépes, all wéven in gérgeous tisstes. — Longfellow.
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic) :—
I4vi4z-levitllevl4vuivisall
té déds oré Sybarin || cfr prdpérés Amandé. — Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaedic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two
trochees) : —
IS viIxeyvl4vl4oll
virginibis piiérisqué c4ntd. — Hor.
§§ 625, 626] METRES OF HORACE 421
10. Greater Alcaic (Logawdic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and
dactyl in the third place, —compare Lesser Sapphic) : — :
bet 2u le sf titolo ang
iist’” ét ténacem || prépdsiti viriim. — Hor.
Nore. — Only the above logacedic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Phalecean (Logacdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place) :—
|S2>levl[rzvultvulZzoai
quaénam té m&ld méns, misélli RAuidi,
agit praécipit’” in médés l4mbos ?—Catull. xl.
In English : —
Gérgeous floWerets fn the sinlight shining. — Longfellow.
12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second
Pherecratic) : —
I|A2ZS[ eH vi(Zvu[Z|l4Zealeivul[ZJZaA
6 Cdléni&% quaé ciipfs || pénté lidéré 1éngd. —Catull. xvii.
METRES OF HORACE .
626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza.
These are: —
1. Alecaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter
with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)!:—
iiist’” ét tenfcem || prépositi virém
non civi“” 4rdor || prava iubéntiim,
non viltus fnstantis tyrdnni
ménte quatft solid4, nequ® Atister. — Od. iii. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17,
19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.)
Nortr.—The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alczeus of Lesbos, and
was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It
is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.
2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one
Adonic (3):— . nf
idm satfs terrfs || nivis 4tque dfrae
grandinfs misft || pater ét rubénte
déxter4 sacras || iaculétus drcis
térruit tirbem. —Od, i. 2. ©
(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18,
20, 22, 27; iv. 2,6, 11; Carm. Saec.)
1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 625).
422 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§ 626
Norr.—The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and
was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes —
more frequently than any other except the Alcaic.
3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater
Sapphic (8) : —
pple (8) Lydia dfc, per é6mnfs
té deés oré, Sybarin || cir properés amandé. —Od. i. 8.
4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) : —
éxégi monumént”” || aére perénnitis
régalique siti || pframid’” 4ltits. —Od. iii. 30.
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.)
5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser
Asclepiadic (5) : —
R ©) navis quaé tibi créditim
débés Vérgiliim, || ffnibus Atticis
réddas fncolumém, precor,
ét servés animaé || dimidiim meaé.—Od. i. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and on
Glyconic (1) : —
quis désfderié || sft pudor att modis
tam carf capitis ? || praécipe ligubrfs
cdntiis, Mélpomené, || cuf liquidém patér
vécem ctim citharé dedft. —Od. i. 24.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.)
7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one
Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) :—
6 fons Bandusiaé || spléndidiér vitré,
dulci dfgne meré, || nén sine fidribis,
cris dondberis haédé
cuf frdns ttrgida cérnibis. — Od. iii. 13.
(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 18; iv. 13.)
8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6): —
tfi né quaésierfs, || scfre nefas! || quém mihi, quém tibf
finem df dederint, || Leticonoé, || néc Babyléniés
téntaris numerés. — Od. i. 11.
(Found in Od. i. 11, 18; iv. 10.)
9. Alemanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating
with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Kpod. 12.)
§ 626] METRES OF HORACE 423
10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with
a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617.5). (Od. iv. 7.)
11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter,
§ 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618.d). The stanza
consists of two pairs of verses : —
sélvitur dcris hiéms grata vice || Véris ét Favéni,
trahiintque siccas || michinaé carfnds;
4c neque idm stabulis gaudét pecus, || att ardtor fgni,
nec prata canis || albicdnt pruinfs. —Od. i. 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : —
n6x erat, ét caelé || fulgébat lina serénd
intér minéra sfderd,
cim ti, m4gndrim || nimén laesiira dedrum,
in vérba itirabis med.—Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618) :—
Altera jdm teritur || bellis civflibus aétas,
suis et fpsa Réma || vfribis ruft.—Epod. 16.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2): — |
miserar™” est | nequ® amdri| dare lidum | neque dulci
mala vind | laver® aut ex|animari | metuentis. — Od. iii. 12.
17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. 0); Iambic
perp eg Pettf, nihfl mé || sicut dnte4 iuvat
scribere vérsiculés || amére pérculsim gravf.—Epod. 11.
18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. b):
hérrida témpestas || caelim contraxit, et imbrés
nivésque dédicint Iovém; || ntinc mare, nine siliiaé. . .
—Epod. 18.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c).
INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE
Lr. I
1. Maecénis atavis: 4. 8. Lydia dic: 3.
2. Iam satis terris: 2. 9. Vidés ut alta: 1.
3. Sic té diva: 5. 10. Mercuri facunde nepés: 2.
4. Solvitur acris hiems: 11. 11. Ti né quaesieris: 8.
5. Quis multa: 7. 12. Quem virum: 2.
6. Scribéris Varis: 6. 13. Cum tii Lydia: 5.
7. Laudabunt alii: 9. 14. O navis: 7.
424 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
15. Pastor cum traheret: 6.
16. O matre pulchra: 1.
17. Vél6x amoenum: 1.
18. Nillam Vare: 8.
19. Mater saeva: 5.
20. Vile potabis: 2.
21. Dianam tenerae: 7.
22. Integer vitae: 2.
23. Vitas inuled: 7.
24. Quis désiderid: 6.
25. Parcius iiinctas: 2.
26. Misis amicus: 1.
Motum ex Metellé: 1.
Niillus argenté: 2.
Aequam memento: 1.
Né sit ancillae: 2.
Nondum subacta: 1.
Septimi Gadés: 2.
O saepe mécum: 1.
Billa si idiris: 2. “
. Ndn semper imbrés: 1.
. Réctius vivés: 2.
SO 1 OTP O bo pe
—
Odi profanum: 1.
Angustam amicé: 1.
. Iiistum et tenicem: 1.
Déscende caeld: 1.
Caeld tonantem: 1.
. Délicta maidrum: 1.
. Quid flés: 7.
. Martiis caelebs: 2.
Donec gratus: 5.
10. Extrémum Tanain: 6.
11. Mercuri nam té: 2.
12. Miserarum est: 16.
13. O fons Bandusiae: 7.
14. Herculis ritii: 2.
15. Uxor pauperis: 5.
O90 DI OU 9 BO
Intermissa Venus: 5.
Pindarum quisquis: 2.
Quem tii Melpomené: 5.
Qualem ministrum: 1.
. Divis orte bonis: 6.
. Dive quem prolés: 2.
7. Diffiigére nivés: 10.
8. Donairem pateras: 4.
oo Se Se
Lis. II
Liz. III
27.
28.
29.
30.
32.
Natis in isum: 1.
Té maris: 9.
Icci beatis: 1.
O Venus: 2.
. Quid dédicatum: 1.
Poscimur: 2.
. Albi né doleas: 6.
. Parcus dedrum: 1.
O diva: 1.
. Et tire: 5.
- Nunc est bibendum: 1.
. Persicds odi: 2.
. Quid bellicdsus: 1.
. Nolis longa: 6.
. Ile et nefastd: 1.
. Eheu fugacés: 1.
. Iam pauca: 1.
. Otium divos: 2.
. Cir mé querellis: 1.
. Non ebur: 19.
. Baechum in remOtis: 1.
. Non isitata: 1.
Cael6 supinas: 1.
Intactis opulentior: 5.
. Qué mé Bacche: 5.
. Vixi puellis: 1.
. Impids parrae: 2.
. Féstd quid: 5.
Tyrrhéna régum: 1
Exégi monumentum: 4.
Né forte crédas: 1.
Carmen Saeculare :
. Incliisam Danaén: 6.
. Aeli vetusté: 1.
. Faune nympharum: 2.
. Quantum distet: 5.
. Non vidés: 2.
. Onata mécum: 1.
. Montium cistds: 2.
. O eriidélis adhie: 8.
. Est mihi ndnum: 2.
. Iam vyéris comités:
. Audivére Lycé: 7.
. Quae ciira patrum:
. Phoebus yolentem:
6.
Le
1,
2
[§ 626
§§ 626-628] MISCELLANEOUS 425
EPopEs
1. Ibis Liburnis: 13. 10. Mala solita: 13.
2. Beatus ille: 13. 11. Petti nihil: 17.
3. Parentis dlim: 13. 12. Quid tibi vis: 9.
4. Lupis et agnis: 13. ° 13. Horrida tempestias: 18.
5. At6é dedrum: 13. 14. Mollis inertia: 14.
6. Quid immerentis: 13. 15. Nox erat: 14.
7. Qué qué scelesti: 13. 16. Altera iam: 15.
8. Rogare longé: 13. 17. Iam iam efficaci: 12.
9. Quand6 repostum: 13.
627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above
mentioned verses : —
a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : —
Dfainaé stimits | in fidé
piel|l% ét piéjr? intégrf:
Dfajndm, pier? intégrf
piieljlaéqué c&|nijmis. — Catull. xxxiv.
6. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: —
- An malgis dilrf trémii|éré | Ménés
Hércii[l™ ? ét vijstim canis | fnféjrériim
fagit | dbrup|tis trépi|dis c&|ténis ?
falli|mar: lae|té vénit | éccd | vilta,
quém tiijlit Poejis; hiimé|rfsqué | téla
géstat | ét nd|tés popiillis phajrétras
Hércitlis | hérés. — Sen. Herc. Oet. 1600-1606.
c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Herc. Fur.
830-874, 875-894).
MISCELLANEOUS
628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
a. Anapestic (§ 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the
SAREE hic hdmést | omni” hémi|num praé|cipiiés
voliipta|tibiis gat|diisqu® dn|tépdténs.
ité cém|mdd& quaé | ciipY’ é}véntint,
quid Xgé | sitbit, dd|séctié | séquittir :
it% gauldium sup|pédit&t.— Pl. Trin. 1115-1119.
b. Bacchiac(§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, —
very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two
feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are
426 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [$§ 628, 629
all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the
molossus (three longs) substituted : —
multas rés | simft® in | m&6 cor|dé vérsd,
mult’ {n cd|gitdnds | délér’” in|dipiscdr.
Sgdmét mé | cdg? 6t malctr? ét délfatiga ;
migister | mth? éxer|citér Anijmiis ntinc est.
— Pl. Trin. 223-226.
ce. Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac-
chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : —
Amor Smiletis mihi | né fiids | imquam.
his &g6 | d? drtibus | grétiam | facio.
nfl &g° is|tés moror | faéc&ds | mérés. —id. 267, 298, 297.
d. Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not
borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of
which scholars are not agreed.}
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of
six feet, and is divided into two parts by a cesura before the fourth thesis.
Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis
of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables; but the arsis,
except at the beginning of the verse and before the czsura, is often entirely
suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse : —
d&bint milim Métélli || Naévid pdétae.
2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard
to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; but for any
unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted
in the second foot of the verse : —
débunt mdlum Metélli || Naévié poétae.
EARLY RROSODY
629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re-
spects from that of the later.?
a. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make
position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether.
This usage continued in all poets till Cicero’s time (§ 15. 7).
1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, par-
ticularly of the second theory here stated.
2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence
of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but
shows itself again in the Romance languages.
§ 629] EARLY PROSODY . 427
b. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may
be shortened (iambic shortening) : —
1. Ina word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in
a few words like puta, cavé, valé, vidé, egd, modd, dud 1): —
bi (Ter. Ph. 59); béni (id. 516) ; hémd sudvis (id. 411).
2. If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is pre-
ceded by a short monosyllable : —
séd his tabellas (Pl. Pers. 195); quid hic nunc (id. Epid. 157); pér Inpli-
vium (Ter. Ph. 707); &g° dsténderem (id. 793).
3. When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three
syllables :—
véniistatis (Ter. Hec. 848); sénéctiitem (id. Ph. 434); Syrictisas (Pl. Merc.
37); Amicitia (id. Ps. 1263).
ce. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.? Such are ile,
immo, inde, iste, imnis, némpe, quippe, inde.
d. The original long quantity of some final syllablet is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r-
stems or original s-stems) : —
médo quom dict® in m? ingerébas édium nén ux6r erdém (PI. Asin. 927).
fta m?® in péctor® dtque cérde fdcit amor incénditim (id. Merc. 500).
dtque quéntd n6x fufsti léngidr hac préxuma (id. Am. 548).
2. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in milés, superstés.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is
elsewhere long in inflection : —
régrediér audisse mé (Pl. Capt. 1023); dtqu® ut quf fueris et quf nunc (id.
248); mé néminat haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciét ut sémper (id. Poen.
ii. 42); infuscibat, am4b6 (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qui amét (id. Merc.
1021) ; ut fit in béllo cdpitur Alter filits (id. Capt. 25); tibi sit ad mé
revisas (id. Truc. ii. 4. 79).
e. Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause
in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.®
1 Cf. ambé (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the 6 is retained because of the
length of the first syllable.
2 Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity.
3 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in the present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.
428 . MISCELLANEOUS —— [8§ 630, 681
MISCELLANEOUS
Reckoning of Time
630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the
Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ab urbe condita,
anno urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond-
ing with B.c. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian
era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754;e.g. A.U.c. 691 (the year of
Cicero’s consulship) corresponds to B.c. 63.
Before Czesar’s reform of the Calendar (B.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355
days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days, February hay-
ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the
solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontijicés, inserted
a month of varying length (ménsis intercaldaris) after February 23, and omitted the
rest of February. The ‘‘ Julian year,’’ by Cesar’s reformed Calendar, had 365 days,
divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (v1. Kal.
Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called
bissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius
Cesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The .
Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen-
dar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned
as follows: —
a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends).
Nots. — Kalendae is derived from calare, to call, —the Calends being the day on
which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata. This
they did, originally, from actual observation.
b. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thir-
teenth of the other months, were the Idiis (Ides), the day of Full Moon.
c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth
of the other months, were the Nonae (ones or ninths).
d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were
reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the
Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the
reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the fol-
lowing rule for determining the date : —
If the given date be Calends, add tivo to the number of days in the month pre-
ceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, —and
from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus, —
vu. Kal. Feb. (81 + 2—8) =Jan. 25.
1v. Non. Mar. (7 + 1 — 4) = Mar. 4.
tv. Id. Sept. (138 + 1—4) = Sept. 10.
§§ 631, 632] CALENDAR 429
Notr.— The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalen-
dae, Nonae, Idiis.
For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g.
e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascer-
tained, are given in the following table : —
January February March April
1. Kan. IAN. Kau. Fes. Kau. MARTIAE Kat. Aprinks
2. Iv. Non. Ian. Iv. Non. Feb. vi. Non. Mart. Iv. Non. Apr.
3. m1. “ “ee Ill. “ “ce Vv. “ “oc Til. “cc “
4. prid.‘‘ “ prid.*‘‘ “cc Iv. “ce “ce prid.*‘* “ce
5. Non. IAN. Non. FEs. nt ped pi Non. APRILES
6. vit. Id. Ian. vu. Id. Feb. prid.‘ a vu. Id. Apr.
Ties) ce fe ES Non. MARTIAE VEE «nes
S.-vas0 WE, Ost vir. Id. Mart. VEs rset
9. Vv. if7 “ Vv. “ce “ VII. “ ti T. “ “
10. Iv. oc “ce Iv. “cc ti VI. ai iti IV. “ce “cc
41: Iii. o “cc Til. a3 e Vv. “cc “ Ii. “ “cc
12. prid. “ “ce prid. “ce “ Iv. cc “ec prid. oc “ce
13. Inds IAN. Ipts Fes. Far, Weer F166 Ips APRILEs.
14. xrx. Kal. Feb. xvi. Kal. Martias prid. “ rs xvi. Kal. Maias.
ipeekva. SS £V5 “ IptUs MARTIAE, Vila vo se
te 5 0: Se iad siv.. * “ xvu. Kal. Aprilis. XVIc- ae
AT; XVI. “e “ XIII. “ec “ XVI. e sé XV. “cc “ce
je A ped as Berd, 5? ns XV. ss XIV. s 4A
19. xIv. “cc “ce Xi. “ce “cc XIV o ai XIII “ “
20. XIII. “ “oc » & ii “ XIII “ “c XII “oc “
91. xiI. “ “ Ix. “ “ xu “ce 77 xI fi “
99° XI “cc “cc Vur (fi “ee =T. “oc “ x. “ ““
23. x “ “ vil. “ “c w; “cc “cc Ix. “ce “
94. Ix ce “ VI. “ fi Ix. “cc “ce Vill oe “
95. VIII “ “cs Vv. ia% “e Vill o “ VII “ce “
6. Vir “ o Iv. “ ce VII “ “oc VI 77 e
oT. VI. “ “ Tir. “cc “ vI. “cc oc Vv. “ “cc
28. Vv. “ “ce prid. “ce o“ Vv. “ce “oc IV. “ec “cc
29. Iv. 7 ENS [prid. Kal. Mart.in Iv. $6 ee mm. ef #5
3 an tt ed leap-year, the VI. II. e s$ prid. ‘ fs
Oh. pride tse :** Kal. (24th) being prid. “ “ay (So June, Sept.,
(So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) Noy.)
Norsr. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (B.c. 46) is to be found not
by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the
month.
Measures of Value, etc.
632. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of cop-
per. The unitwas the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but
actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces).
430 MISCELLANEOUS [$$ 632-636
In the third century B.c. the as was gradually reduced to one-half
of its original value. In the same century silver coins were intro-
duced, — the dénarius and the séstertius. The denarius = 10 asses;
the sestertius = 24 asses.
633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the
as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (24 asses)
was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sester-
tius (usually abreviated to 1S or HS) came to be used as the unit
of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply séstertius. As the
reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent
to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to
100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the
following table : —
24 asses = 1 séstertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (23d.).
10 asses or 4 séstertii=1dénarius. “ ‘“ 20 ‘* (10d.).
1000 séstertii=1séstertium ... “ ‘ $50.00 (£10).
Nors. — The word séstertius is a shortened form of sémis-tertius, the third one, a
half. The abbreviation HS or HS = duo et sémis, two and a half.
634, The séstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sés-
tertius depending on mille) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word
is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria séstertia = $150.00.
When séstertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centéna milia,
hundreds of thousands, is to be understood: thus deciéns séstertium
(deciéns us) = deciéns centéna milia séstertium = $50,000. Séstertium in
this combination may also be inflected : deciéns séstertii, séstertid, etc.
In the statement of large sums séstertium is often omitted as well
as centéna milia: thus sexagiéns (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiéns
[centéna milia séstertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces = $300,000 (nearly).
635. In the statement of sums of money in Roman numerals, a
line above the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the
sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus us pc=600 séstertii; Hs Do=
600,000 séstertii, or 600 séstertia; us [Dc] —60,000,000 séstertii, or
60,000 séstertia.
636. The Roman Measures of Length are the following: —
12 inches (unciae) = 1 Roman Foot (pés: 11.65 English inches).
14 Feet = 1 Cubit (cubitum). — 2} Feet = 1 Step (gradus).
5 Feet =1 Pace (passus). — 1000 Paces (mille passuum) =1 Mile.
§§ 636-638] MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY 431
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet.
The ifigerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet long and 120 broad; a little less than 3 of an English acre.
637. The Measures of Weight are —
12 unciae (ownces) = one pound (libra, about } Ib. avoirdupois).
Fractional parts (weight or coin) are —
qs, uncia. ys, Quincune. $, dodrans.
%, sextans. 4, sémis. &, dextans.
4, quadrans. za, septunz. 44, deunz.
4, triéns. 2, bés or béssis. 43, as.
The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight (rdAavrov) = 60 librae.
638. The Measures of Capacity are —
12 cyathi =1 sextarius (nearly a pint).
16 sextarii = 1 modius (peck).
6 sextarit = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congit =1 amphora (6 gallons).
432 “GLOSSARY [§§ 639, 640
GLOSSARY
OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY
639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms
of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using fig-
ures at all—as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, ‘‘It gave me no little
pleasure,’’ he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, ‘‘ John went up the street,
James down,’”’ antithesis; when he says, ‘‘ High as the sky,’’ hyperbole. Many were
given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus méd and
téd (§ 143. a. N.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, simpsi its p to epenthesis.
Such a sentence as ‘‘ See my coat, how well it fits! ’’ was supposed to be an irregularity
to be accounted for by prolepsis.
Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often
occur; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another.
640. Grammatical Terms
4
Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the
first part broken or unfinished.
Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words.
Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis).
Archaism: an.adoption of old or obsolete forms.
Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323. 6).
Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy: brevity of expression.
Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ 15. 3).
Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense.
Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.
Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable.
Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions.
Hendiadys (ev 8a dvotv): the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead
of a single modified noun.
Hypallage: interchange of constructions.
Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas.
This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in
language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes
first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and
so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative; cf. ‘‘ Bred and Born in
a Brier Bush”? (Uncle Remus).
Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word.
Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word.
Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction.
§§ 640, 641] RHETORICAL FIGURES 433
Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution).
Pleonasm: the use of needless words.
Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions.
Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would
naturally appear (anticipation).
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever),
leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512).
Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word.
Synesis (cOnstrictid ad sénsum): agreement of words according to the sense,
and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a).
Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words
(cutting). :
This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from
the verbs with which they were afterwards joined ; so in per ecastor scitus puer, a very
fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in
Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius).
Zeugma: the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to
only one of which it strictly applies (yoking).
641. Rhetorical Figures
Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events,
or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth.
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound.
Analogy: argument from resemblances.
Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses
(§ 598. f).
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: § 598. /).
Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse : —
sint Maecénatés, nodn deerunt, Flacce, Marénés, so there be patrons (like Me-
cenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking, Flaccus (Mart. viii. 56. 5).
illa furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homéromastix, scourge
of Homer (i.e. Zoilus).
Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect.
Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (abisid, misuse of words).
Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases
(§ 598. f).
Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning.
Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea : —
si quid ei acciderit, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies).
Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound.
Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words.
434 GLOSSARY [$§ 641, 642
Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect.
Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is
meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 326. c).
Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some
resemblance.
Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing.
Onomatopeia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words.
Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase : —
insaniéns sapientia, foolish wisdom.
Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound.
Prosopopeia: personification.
Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as).
Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. h).
Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse.
642. Terms of Prosody
Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. a).
Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures.
Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (§ 608. g).
Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before
(cf. strophe).
Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 611).
Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.
Cesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 611. d).
Catalectic: see Catalexis.
Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic
(incomplete, § 612. a).
Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610).
Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.
Dieresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word
within the verse (§ 611. c).
Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (siliia = silva, § 603. f. N.*).
Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 612. d).
Dimeter: consisting of two like measures.
Dipody: consisting of two like feet.
Distich: a system or series of two verses.
Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning
with a vowel (§ 612. /).
Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (§ 612. e).
Heptameter: consisting of seven feet.
§ 642] TERMS OF PROSODY 435
Hexameter: consisting of six measures.
Hezxapody: consisting of six feet.
Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. g).
Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a).
Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 609. e).
Logaedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 628).
Monometer: consisting of a single measure.
Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a).
Pentameter: consisting of five measures.
Pentapody: consisting of five feet.
Penthemimeris: consisting of five half-feet.
Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c).
Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 610).
Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza),
which may be indefinitely repeated.
Syneresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603.
So Meg Jo N: *).
Synalepha: the same as elision (§ 612. e. N.).
Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 612. e. N.).
Syncope: loss of a short vowel.
Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603
c. N.)- :
Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long.
Tetrameter: consisting of four measures.
Tetrapody: consisting of four feet.
Tetrastich: a system of four verses.
Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611).
Trimeter: consisting of three measures.
Tripody: consisting of three feet.
Tristich: a system of three verses.
INDEX OF VERBS
Regular verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations are given only in
special cases. Compounds are usually omitted when they are conjugated like the
simple verbs.
to sections.
The figures after the verbs indicate the conjugation.
For classified lists of important verbs see § 209 (First Conjugation),
References are
§ 210 (Second Conjugation), § 211 (Third Conjugation), § 212 (Fourth Conjugation),
§§ 190, 191 (Deponents), § 192 (Semi-Deponents).
ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
ab-e6, see ed.
ab-icid, 3, -iéci, -iectum [iacid].
ab-igo, 3, -€gi, -actum [ago].
ab-nud, 3, “nul, —
ab-oled, 2, ~€vi, -itum.
ab-olésco, 3, -évi, — [aboled].
ab-ripi6, 3, -ripul, -reptum [rap
10].
abs-conds, 3, -di (-didi), satan foods},
ab-sisto, 3, -stiti, —
ab-sum, abesse, afui, (afutirus).
ac-cend6, 3, -cendi, -cénsum.
accerso, See arcesso.
ac-cidit (impers.), 207, 208. c.
ac-cid6, 3, -cidi, — [cado].
ac-cidd, a; ~cidi, -cisum [caed6].
ac-cid, 4, reg. [cid].
ac-cipio, $3 -cépi, -ceptum [capid].
ac-col6, 3, -ui, —
ac-credo, see crado.
ac-cumb6, 3, -cubui, -itum.
ac-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
acésco, 3, -acui, — [co-].
ac-quiré, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaer6].
acuo, 3, -ul, -utum, 174, 176. d.
ad-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
ad-e6, see ed.
ad-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habed].
ad-igo, 3, ~€gi, -actum [ago].
ad-imd, 3, -€mi, -Emptum emo].
ad-ipiscor, -I, -eptus.
ad-nu6, 3, -nui, —
ad-oled, 2, -ui, —.
ad-oléscé, 3, -€vi, -ultum.
ad-sentior, -Irl, -sénsus.
ad-sided, 2, -sédi, -sessum [seded].
ad-sid6, 3, “sedi, —
eg pee , -Spersi, -spérsum [spargo].
ad-st6, 1 , -stiti, —
ad-sum, “esse, “fui, (-futiirus).
af-fari, affatus, 206. c.
af-ferd, -ferre, attuli, allatum.
af-ficid, 3, -féci, -fectum [facid].
af-fligd, 3, -xi, -ctum.
ag-gredior, -i, -gressus [gradior].
Agndscd, 3, -Ovi, Agnitum [ndscd].
ago, 3, égi, actum. [For regular comps.,
see abs ; for others, see cOgo, circum-,
per-
aid, defect., 206. a.
albed, 2, -ui, —
alésc, 3, -ul, -alitum.
alged, 2, alsi, —
alacecd, 3, alsi, —.
al-lego, 3, -Egi, -Ectum.
al-licid, 3, -lexi, —.
ald, 3, alui, altum (alitum).
amb-igd, 3, —, — [ago].
ambi6, -ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (ambibat),
203. d.
amici6, 4, amixi (-cul), amictum.
amo6, 180, 184; amarim, amasse, amas-
sem, 181. a; amassis, 183. 5.
ango, 3, Anxl, —
ante-cell6, 3, —, —.
ante-st6, 1, -steti, —.
eeu 1, -steti, —
aperio, 4 » aperul, apertum.
apiscor, 4, aptus [ad-ipiscor].
ap-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
ap-petd, 3, ” _petivi -ii), -itum.
ap-primé, ie -pressi, -pressum [prem6].
arced, 2, -ui, — [oot
arcesso (accersd), 3 , “ivi, arcessitum.
arded, 2, arsi, (arsiirus).
ardesco, 3, arsi, —
ared, 2, —, —.
arésco, Ne “arui, —
argud, 3 ; -ul, -utum.
ar-rig6, 3, -réxi, -réctum [regd
ar-ripio, 3, -ui, -reptum rapt
a-scend6, 3, -di, -scénsum [scandd].
a-spergo, see ad-spergo.
a-spicio, 3, -exi, -ectum [-spicid].
at-tend6, 3, -di, -tum
at-tined, 2, -tinui, -tentum (tened].
436
INDEX OF VERBS
at-tingd, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tan
at-tolld wy -, ye [tolld]. [tango].
auded, audére, ausus, 192 (ausim, 183. 3;
sddés, 13. N.).
audid, 4, audivi, auditum, 187 (contracted
forms, 181. b).
au-fero, -ferre, abstuli, ablatum.
auged, 2, auxi, auctum.
ausim, see audeo.
avé (havé), avéte, avétd, 206. g.
aved, 2, —, —.
balbitis, 4, —, —.
batué, 3, -ui, —.
bibd, 3, bibi, (potum).
bullis, 4, reg. (bulls, -ire) [€-bullid].
eet * cecidi, casum [ac-, con-, oc-cid6],
178
caeciitis, 4, —, —.
caed6, 3, cecidi, caesum [ac-, oc-cid6, etc.].
cale-facio, like facid, 266. a.
cale-facto, 1, —, —, 266. a
caled, 2, -ui, (calitatrus).
caléscd, 3, -ul, —
called, 2, -ul, —.
calved, g, —_-,—.
canded, 2, -ui, —
candésc6, 3, -candui, —.
caned, 2, -ui, —
canéscd, 3, canui, —.
cand, 3, cecini, — [con-cind].
cantills, 1, reg., 263. 3.
capesso, 3, capessivi, —, 263, 2. 6 (in-
cipisso, 3, —,—).
eapid, 3, cépi, captum [ac-cipid etc. ; also
ante-capio], 188
cared, M4 -ul, (-itii1 rus).
carpo, 3, -psi, -ptum, 177. b [dé-cerpd].
caved, 2, cayi, cautum.
cavillor, -Ari, -dtus, 263. 3
cedo (imperative), cedite (cette), 206. g.
céd6, 3, cessi, cessum.
cells (only in comp., see per-cell6, ex-
celld, ante-celld, prae-celld).
-cendo, 3, -cendi, -cénsum (only in comp.,
as in-cendd).
cénsed, 2, -ul, censum.
cernd, 3, crévi, -crétum.
cied (cid), ciére (-cire), civi,
(-citum) _[ac-cid, con-, ex-cid].
cing6, 3, cinxi, cinctum.
-cid, see "cied.
circum-d6, -dire, -dedi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
circum-sist6, 3, -steti (-stiti), —.
circum-spicio, 3, ~exi, -ectum.
circum-sto, 1, -stiti (-steti), — 5
elangé, 3, —, —.
claréscd, 3, clarui, _.
clauded, 2, —, —, see claudd wae)
claud6 (timp); 3, —, —-
citum
437
claud6é (close), 3, clausi, clausum [ex-
cliido].
clued, 2, —, —.
co-emd6, 3. -émi, -emptum.
coepl, -isse, coeptirus, 205.
co-erced, 2, ‘ -itum [arced].
cd-gndsco, 3, -gndvi, -gnitum [ndscd].
c6g6, 3, » oe , coactum, 15. : Lago].
col-lid6, 3, -lisi, lisum [laed
col-ligd, 3 ; -légi, -léctum.
col-liiced, 2, —, — [liiced].
cold, 3, colui, cultum [ex-, ac-, in-].
combird, 3, -ussi, -ustum [wird].
com-edo, 3 (ésse), -édi, -€sum -éstum).
com-miniscor, -i, -mentus.
com6, 3, cOmpsi, comptum.
com-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
com-percd, $. -persi, — [parcd].
comperid, 4, -peri, compertum.
comperior, -iri, compertus, 191. N.
com-pésco, o -cul, —.
com-ping6, 3, -pégi, -pactum [pango].
com-ple6, 2, “Bvi, -étum.
com-prim6, ‘* -pressi, -pressum [prem].
com-pungo, 3, -piinxi, -pinctum [pung6].
con-cidé, 3, -cidi, — cado].
con-cid6, $: -cidi, -cisum [caed6].
con-cind, 3, -ui, — [cand].
con-cipio, 3, -cépi, -ceptum [capid].
con-cid (-cied) , 4 (2), -civi, -citum (-citum).
con-clids, 3, -cliisi, -clisum [claud6].
con-cupisc6, 3, -cupivi, -cupitum.
con-curr6, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
con-cutid, 3, -cussi, -cussum [quatid].
con-d6, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
cd-nect6, 3, -nexui, -nexum, 16.
cdn-fercid, 4, —, -fertum [farcid].
con-fer6, -ferre, -tuli, collatum.
con-ficid, 3, -féci, -fectum [facid].
con-fit, defect., 204. ¢.
con-fiteor, -éri, -fessus [fateor].
con-fring6, 3, -frégi, ferme pee [frango].
con-grud, 3, -ui, — [-
con-ici6, % -iéci, bec; 6.d [iacid].
co-nitor, -i, -nisus (-nixus), 16.
cd-nived, 2, -nivi (-nixi), —, 16.
con-quiro, B. Or ahs ~quisitum [quaerd].
con-sisté, 3, — i, —
con-spergo, 3 , -Spersl, -spersum [sparg6].
con-spicid, 3, ‘-spexl, -spectum, 174.
con-stitus, 3, -ul, -stititum [statu].
con-sté, 1, -stiti (statiirus) (cdnstat, 207).
con-sué-facid, like facid, 266. a.
con-suéscd, 3, -évi, -étum (cdnsuérat,
181. a).
con-suld, 3, -ui, -sultum.
cdn-tend6, 3, -tendi, -tentum.
con-ticésco, 3, -ticul, —
con-tined, 2, -tinul, ‘tentum tened}.
con-tingd, 3, ets ag tangd] (con-
tingit, impers., 208
438
con-tund6, 3, -tudi, -tisum [tundd].
coqud, 3, coxi, coctum.
cor-rig6, 3, -réxi, -réctum [reg6].
cor-ripid, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapi6].
cor-ru6, 3, -ui, — [rud}.
erébréscé, 3, -crébrui, — [in-, per-].
eréd6, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. [-d6].
crepo, 1, -ui (-crep&vi), -crepitum.
eréscd, 3, créyi, crétum, 176. 0.1
crocid, 4, —, —.
eriidéscd, 3, "-eriidui, — [re-].
eubd, 1, -ui (cubavi), -cubitum.
cdo, 5 -ciidi, -cisum [in-cid6].
-cumb6 [cuB] (see ac-cumb6; compounds
with dé-, ob-, pro-, re-, and sub-, lack
the p.p.).
cupid, 3, cupivi, cupitum, 174.
~cupiscd, 3, see con-cupisco.
currd, 3, cucurri, cursum [in-currd].
débed, 2, -ui, -itum, 15. 3.
dé-cerpo, 3, -cerpsi, -cerptum [carpd].
decet (i impers. ), decére, decuit, 208. c.
dé-cipio, 3, -cépi, -ceptum [eapio].
dé-curr6, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
dé-do, 3, ’ didi, -ditum [d6], 209. a. n.
dé-fends, 3, -di, -fénsum, 178. 6. N.1.
dé-fetiscor, -I, -fessus.
dé-fit, defect., 204. c.
dégo, 3, —, — [ago].
délectat (impers. ), 208. c.
déles, 2, -évi, -étum.
dé-libua, 3 , -libui, -libitum.
dé-ligs, 3, ‘légi, -léctum [lego].
dém6, 3, démpsi, démptum.
dé-pells, 3, -pull, -pulsum.
dé-prim6, 5, -pressi, -pressum Foedmnel:
deps6, 3, -sui, -stum.
dé-scendo, 3, -di, -scénsum [scand6
dé-silid, 4, -silui (-silii), [-sultum] salio].
dé-sino, 3, -sii (-sivi), -situm [sind].
dé-sipio, 3, —, — [sapio].
dé-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum [sisto].
dé-spicio, 5, -spexi, -spectum.
dé-spondes, 2, -di, -sponsum [sponded].
dé-strud, 3, -straixi, -striictum.
dé-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futiirus) [sum].
dé-tend6, 3, [-di], -sum.
dé-tines, 3, -ul, -tentum [tened].
dé-vertor, -i, —.
dicé, 3, dixi, dictum, p. 87, footnote 4
(dixti, 181. 6. N.?; dic, 182).
dif-ferd, -ferre, distuli, tag [ferd].
dif-fiteor, -éri, — [fateo
di-gn6scé, 3, -gnovi, — [ndsed].
di-ligs, 3, léxi, -léctum [lego].
di-lus, 3, "lui, -litum []u6].
di-mico, ‘“; -avi, -atum.
di-ndscé, see di-gndsco.
dir-ibed, 2, —, -itum [habed].
dir-imo, 3, ~émii, -émptum [emd].
INDEX OF VERBS
di-ripid, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapid].
di-ru6, 3, -rui, -rutum [rud].
disco [prc], 3, didici, — [So compounds. }
dis-crep6, 1, ui or -AVi, _
dis-curr6, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
dis-icid, 3, dis-iéci, -iectum asia}
dis-pands, 3, 3, —, -pansum (-pessum) [pan-
dis-sided, 2, -sédi, —
dis-sili6, 4, -ui, —.
dis-tend6, 3, -di, -tum,
tye Wee , ~stinxi, -stinctum.
di-sto, 1
diteseb, = —,—.
di-vid6, 3. -visi, -visum.
dé [pa] (give), dare, dedi, ditum, 174,
ied e, 202, 209. a. N. (duim, perduim,
183. 2).
[seded].
-d6 [pi] (put), 3, -didi, -ditum (only in
comp., see ab-d6, "eredd ,vénd6), 209. a. N.
doced, 2, -ui, doctum.
doleé, 2, -ul, (-itiirus).
-doléscé, 3, -dolui, — [con-].
dom6, 1, -ui, -itum.
-dormisco, 3, -dormivi, — leona.
diicé, 3, diixi, ductum (dic, 182
dilcesco, 3, — —
duréscé, 3, ‘darui, —
é-bullid, 4, ébullii, —.
edo (eat), 3, edere (@sse), édi, ésum, 201.
6-dé ( put forth), 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
ef-ferd, -ferre, extuli, elatum.
page 3, -féci, -fectum [facid].
eged, 2 . -ul, — >
é-icid, 3, -iéci, -iectum [iacid].
é-licid, 3, -ul, -citum.
é-ligd, 3, "légi, -léctum [legd].
é-micé, 1, -micui, -micatum.
é-mined, 2, -ui, — [-mined].
emo, 3, émi, émptum, 15. 11 [ad-, dir-imé,
co-emd].
é-nec6, 1, -ui (-avi), -nectum (-Atum) [nec].
éns, see sum.
e6, Ire, ii (ivi), itum, 203 (itum est, 203. a;
iri, id.; itur, impers., 208. d; ad-ed, ad-
eor, in-ed, 203. a; ambid, 203. d; ; prod-
6, -ire, -il, -itum, 203. e). See véned.
é-rigo, 3, -rexi, -réctum.
escit, escunt (see sum), 170. sF N.
ésurid, 4, —, ésuritirus, 263. 4
é-vado, 3, -vasi, -vasum (évasti, 181. b.N.).
€-vaneésco, 3, évanul, —
é-venit (impers.), 207, 208. c.
é-vilésc6, 3, -vilui, —.
ex-cell6, 3, "eellui, -celsum.
ex-cid (-cieo), 4 (2), -ivi (-ii), -itum (-itum).
ex-cipid, 3, -cépi, -ceptum [capid].
ex-clud6, 3, -clisi, -clisum [claud6].
ex-cold, 3, -ui, -cultum [cold].
ex-curré, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
INDEX OF VERBS
ex-erced, 2, -cui, -citum [arced].
ex-imd, 3, -€mi, "emptum {emo}.
ex-olescd, 3, -olévi, -olétum.
ex-pelld, 3 , -puli, -pulsum.
ex-pergiscor, 3, -perréctus.
ex-perior, 4 , -pertus.
ex-pled, 2, -6Vi, -étum.
ex-plicd, 1, (unfold), -ui, -itum ; (explain),
-Aavi, tum.
ex-plods, 3, -si, -sum [plaudd].
ex-pun ie -pinxi, -pinctum.
ex-(s)ilio, 3 » “ul (-il), — [salid].
ex-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum.
ex-stingud, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum.
ex-sto, 1, —, ‘Gstatirus).
ex-tends, 3, -di, -tum (-sum).
exud, 3, ‘ui, -itum.
facess6, 3, facessivi (facessi), facessitum,
263. 2. B.
facid, 3, féci, factum, 204 (fae, 182; faxd,
-im, 183. 3; con-ficid and other comps.
in -ficid, 204. a; bene-faci6 etc., 204. b;
con-sué-facid, cale-facid, cale-factd, 266.
a).
-factd, 1 (in compounds), 266. a.
fall6, 3, fefelli, falsum, 177. C, 178. b. N.4.
farcio, 4, farsi, fartum [re-fercid].
fateor, -éri, fassus [con-fiteor].
fatiscd, 3, —, —.
faved, 2, favi, fautum.
-fend6, 3, -fendi, -fénsum, see défend6.
ferid, 4, —, —.
ferd, ferre, tuli, latum, 176. d. n.1, 200
(fer, 182) fat. au-, con-, dif-, ef-, in-,
of-, re-, suf-ferd].
ferved, 2, fervi (ferbui), —; also, fervé, 3.
fervésco, 3, -fervi (-ferbui), —.
fid6, fidere, fi sh 192 [cdn-fidd].
figo, 3, fixi, fixu
findd [ri], 3, fidi, fissum, 176. ¢. 2,
WT Cs Ne
fingd [Fic], 3, finxi, fictum, 177. 0. N.
fid, fieri, actus, 204 (see faci) (fit, im-
pers., 208. ¢; confit, défit, infit, effieri,
interfieri, interfiat, superfit, 204. c).
flectd, 3, flexi, flexum.
fled, 2, -vi, -etum, 176. e (fléstis, 181. a).
-fligs, ‘only i in comp., see af-fligo.
fldred, 2, -ui, —.
florésco, 3, fldrui, —
fiué, 3, flixi, fluxum, 261. Nn.
fodid, 3, fodi, fossum.
- [for], fari, fatus, 179. a, 206. ¢ (af-fari, pro-
fatus, prae-, inter-fatur, etc., 206. c).
fore, forem, etc., see sum.
foved, 2, fovi, fotum.
frango FRAG], 3, frégi, fractum, 176. b. 1
per-fring6].
fremé, 3, fremui, —.
frend6, 3, —, frésum (fressum).
439
fricd, 1, -ui, frictum (fricitum).
geo, 2, —, —.
frigésc6, 3, -frixi, — [per-, re-].
frigo, 3, frixi, frictum
fronded, 2,—,—.
fruor, -, frictus.
* fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), 170. 6. N.
fugid, 3, fugi, (fugitiirus).
fulcid, 4, fu if fultum.
a ag )
fulgo, 3, —,
fulgurat (impers. ), 208
fundo [Fup], 3, fadi, fiisum, 176. 6. 1.
ee , functus.
furd, 3, —, —.
fivimus, favisset (see ary 170. b. N.
gannio, 4, —, —.
gauded, gaudére, gavisus, 192,
-gemisco, 3, -gemul, —.
gem, 3, gemui, —
gerd, 3, gessi, gestum.
gestio, 4, -Ivl, —, 262.
gignod [GEN], 3, genul, pr. 176. e.1
-grud, 3, see con-, in-grud.
habed, 2, -ui, -itum [in-hibed; débed;
dir-ibed].
haered, 2, baeai, h haesum.
haeréscé, 3, —,
haurio, 4, hausi, | haustum (hausirus).
havé, see avé.
hebeod, 2, —, —.
hebésco, 3, —, —.
hinniod, 4, —, —.
- hirrid, 4, —, —.
hiscd, 3, —, — [de-hised].
horred, 2, horrui, —
horréscé, 3, -horrui, —
icd, 3, Ici, ictum.
igndscd, 3, -ndvi, -ndtum [ooace
il-licid, 3, “lexi, -lectum [-licid]
il-lid6, 3 , -lisi, -lisum [laed6].
imbud, 3, -ul, -itum.
im-mined, 2, —, — [-mined].
im-pell6, s “puli, -pulsum pello].
Hing ha 1 reg. (-assere, 183. 5).
im-ping6, 3, -pégi, -pactum Teens
im-ple6, 2, -évi, -étum,
im-plicé, 1, -ivi (-ui), -aitum (-itum).
fiom a 3, -di, -sum.
-cesso, ’8, incessivi, —.
in a 3, “-eldi, (-cisiirus) [cad].
in-cid6, 3, -cidi, ~cisum [caed6].
in-cipid, 3, ~cépl, -ceptum [ca doa.
in-cludé, 3, -si, -sum [elaudo}.
440
in-col6, 3, -colui, — [cold].
in-crepo, 1, -ui (-Avi), -itum.
in-curr6, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
in-cutid, 3, -cussi, -cussum.
ind-iged, 2, -ui, — [eged].
ind-ipiscor, 3, -eptus [apiscor].
in-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
indulgeo, 2, indulsi, indultum.
indud, 3, -ui, -iitum.
_ ineptid, 4, —,—.
in-ferd, ferre, -tuli, illatum.
in-fit, see fid.
in-gredior, 3 » “gressus "jolie
in-grud, 3, -ui, — [-gruo
in- ibeo, 2, -ul, -itum [habeo].
in-oléscd, 3, -olévi, —
inquam, detect, 206. b.
in-quir6, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaerd].
in-sideé, 2, -sédi, -sessum [sedeo].
in-sid6, 3, ~sédi, -sessum.
in-silid, 3, -ui, [-sultum] [salid].
in-sistd, 3, -stiti, —
in-spicio, 3, -Spexi, -spectum.
in-stitud, 3, -ui, -itum [statud].
In-sto, 1, -stiti, (-statirus).
intel-leg6, 3, -léxi, -léctum.
inter-do, “dire, -dedi, -datum, 209: a. nN.
inter-est, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 208. b.
inter-fatur, see for.
inter-ficid, 3, -féci, -fectum [facid].
inter-sto, 1, -steti, — , 209. a. N.
in-tueor, -€ri, -tuitus "[tueor].
irascor, -1, iratus.
ir-rud, 3, -rui, — [rud].
iaced, 2, -ui, —
iacid, 3, iéci, iactum [ab-icid, etc.;
ici6, gg
iubed, 2, iussi, iussum (iussd, 183. 3).
itdico, 3 reg. (-Assit, 183. 5).
iungo, 3, "jiinxi, iinctum.
juvenésco, 3; oe
iuy6 (ad-), 1, iivi, iitum (atirus).
dis-
labascd, 3, —, —.
labor, -1, lapsus.
lacess6, 3, lacessivi, lacessitum, 263. b.
laedo, 3 3, laesi, laesum {il-lido].
lamba, 3, —,—.
langued, 2, langui, —
languésco, 3, langui, —
lated, 2, -ui, —.
latésco, e's -litui, — [dé-litéscd].
lav, 3, lavi, lautum (l6tum) (also reg. of
1st conj.).
lego, 3, legi, léctum [for compounds see
211. e, footnote, also dé-ligd, di-ligd,
intel-legd, neglegd].
lev6, 1, reg. (-Assd, 183. ae
libet (lubet), -€re, -uit, 208
libéns).
. ¢ (libitum est ;
INDEX OF VERBS
liced, 2, licui, —.
licet, -€re, licuit, (-itiirum), 207, 208. e
(icitum est, licéns).
-licid, 3 [for lacié, only in comp.; see al-
lici6, é-licid, pel-licid].
lind (x4), 3, lévi (livi), litum.
linqué LIC], 3 , -liqui, -lictum.
liqued, 2, liqui (1 ey 5
liquésco, 3, -licui, —
liquor, -1, —.
lived, 2, —, —.
loquor, - -1, locitus, 261. N.
liiced, 2, laxi, —.
licéscd (cisco), 3 , -liixi, — [il-].
lads, 3, lisi, lusum.
liged, 2, luxi, —.
lud, 8, lui, -latum [dé-lud, solvd].
maded, 2, madui, —
madésco, 3, madui, —.
maereo, 2, —,—.
malo, mille, malui, —, 199 (mavol6, ma-
velim, mavellem, id. N.).
mando, 3, mandi, mansum.
maned, 2, mansi, mansum [per-maned].
MANSUESCO, See -SUESCO.
marcésco, 3, -marcui, — [é-].
maturésco, 5, matirui, —.
medeor, -éri, —
memini, defect., 205.
mereo or mereor, merére or -éri, meritus,
190. g.
mergo, 3, mersi, mersum.
métior, -1ri, ménsus.
meté, 3, messui, -messum.
metud, 3. -ui, -iitum.
mico, 1, micui, —
-mined, 2, -ui, — [6-, im-, pré-mined).
-miniscor, -1, -mentus [com-, re-].
minu6, 3, -ul, -itum.
miror, mirari, miratus.
misce6, 2, -cul, mixtum (mistum).
pitting -€ri, miseritus (misertus), 208.
.N.
miseret, impers., 208. b.
mitésco, OD, ===
mittd, 3, misi, missum, 176. d. N.?.
molior, “ini, -itus.
mold, 3, molui, molitum.
moned, 2, -ul, -itum, 185.
morded, 2, momordi, morsum.
morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moritiirus).
moved, 2, mdvi, m6tum (commérat, 181.a).
mulced, 2, mulsi, mulsum.
mulge6, 2, -si, sipseyer
muttio, 4, -Ivl, —
nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus).
nascor, -i, natus.
necd, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum, 209, footnote 2
[é-neco].
INDEX OF VERBS
nectd [NEc], 3, nexi (nexui), nexum.
neglego, 3, negléxi, -léctum, 211. e, foot-
he . 7 :
nequed, defect., 206. d.
nigrésco, 3, nigrui, —
ningit, 3, ninxit (impers.), 208. a.
nited, 2, —, —.
nitéscd, 3, nitul, —
nitor, -1, nisus (nixus).
-niveo, 2, -nivi (-nixi), —.
nd, 1, navi, —, 179. a.
noce6, 2, nocul, —.
ndld, ndlle, ndlui, —, 199 (nevis, nevolt,
id. N.).
ndscd [GNo], 3, novi, notum [ag-, oo8-s di(g)-,
ig-nosc6], 205. b. N. 2 (ndsse, 181. a).
ndtéscd, 3, -ui, —
niibé, 3, nips, niiptum.
-nu6, 3, -nui, — [ab-, ad-nud].
ob-d6, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
ob-liviscor, -i, oblitus.
ob-mitéscé, 3, -mitui, —
ob-sided, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sided].
ob-sid6, 3, —, —.
ob-sisté, :. -stiti, -stitum.
ob-solésco, 3, -€vi, -étum.
ob-sté, 1, -stiti, (-statiirus).
ob-tines, 2, -ui, -tentum en:
ob-tingit (impers. ), 208
ob-tund6, 3, -tudi, evict (-tiinsum).
ob-venit (impers.), 208. ¢.
oc-calléscé, 3, -callui, —
oc-cidé, 3, “eldi, - casum ‘Teado].
oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caed6].
oc-cind, 3, -cinui, — [cand].
oc-cipid, 3, -cépl, -ceptum.
occeuls, 3, oceului, occultum,
oc-curr6, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
Odi, 6disse, Ssiirus (perdsus), 205
of-ferd, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum.
-oled (grow) ee ab-, ad-].
oled (smell), 2, olui, —
operio, 4, operul, opertum.
oportet, oe -uit (impers.), 208. c.
op-pang6, 3, -pégi, -pactum [pango].
opperior, iui, oppertus.
op-prim6, 3, -pressi, -pressum [prem6].
ordior, -iri, Srsus.
ged (Bd), ent
sy »), 17
os-tend6, 3 Gendt, -tentum.
ovare, ovatus, defect., 206. f.
ortus (oritiirus) (so
paciscor, -I, pactus.
paenitet (impers.), -Gre, -uit, 208. 6
arus, -tendus, id. N.).
palled, 2, pallvi, —
pou S, pallui, —.
pando, 3, pandi, pansum (passum) [dis-].
441
pangd [Pac], 3, pepigi (-pégi), pactum
[im-pingd; op-pango
parcd, 3, peperci (parsi), (parsiirus).
pared, 2, -ui, paritum (late).
paris, 3, péperi, partum (paritirus)
[com-, re-perid].
partior, -iri, -itus, 190.
parturid, 4, —, —.
pascd, 3, pavi, ’pastum.
pated, 2, patui, —
patior, -1, passus [per-petior].
paved, 2, Pak —
pavésco, 3, -pavi, — [ex-].
pecto, 3, pexi, pexum.
perneany 6 , -lexi, -lectum [-licid].
pells, 3, epuli, pulsum, 176. d. n.2, 178.
b. n.4 dap-pello, com-pelld, etc.].
La , pependi, -pénsum.
pends, 3. , pependi, pensum.
per-ago, 3, -€gi, -actum.
per-cell6, 3, -culi, -culsum.
per-cid, see cid ; p.p. -citus.
per-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
per-do, 3, Ai, -ditum, 209. a. nN.
per-ficio, 3 Seti -fectum [facio].
per-fringd, 3 , -frégi, -fractum [frangd].
pergo, 3, perréxi, perréctum,
per-lego, 3 » lea, -léctum [lego].
per-osus, see
per-petior, , “pessus.
per-quir6, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaerd].
per-spicio, 3, ~Spexi, -spectum.
per-sto, 1, -stiti, —
per-tined, 2, -ui, — [tened].
per-tund6, 3, -tudi, -tiisum.
pessum-do, like do, 209. a. N., 428. 7.
petesso (petissd), 3, —, —, 263. 2. db.
pet, 3, petivi -ii), petitum, al Gor
piget (impers.), “ig piguit, 208. 6 (pigi-
tum est, id. N.
pings [rr], 3, pinxi, pictum.
pins6, 3, -si, pins- (pinstum, pistum).
piso, 3, pisivi (il), pistum (see pins6).
placed, 2, -ui, -itum (placet, impers.,
208. c.).
plango, 3, planxi, planctum.
plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-pl6d6, ete. ;
ap-plaud96].
plecté, 3, plexi, plexum, 174, 176. 6. 1.
en -1, -plexus.
-pled, 2, -plévi, -plétum (only in comps.,
as com-pled).
plicé, 1, -plicui (-plicivi), -plicitum (pli-
catum
pit, Sh vials (pliivit), 174, 208. a (pluunt.
polled, 2, —, —.
pollud, 3, -ui, -itum [lud].
pond, 3, posui, positum.
porr-icio, 3, —, -rectum [iacid].
por-rigo (porgd), 3 , -rexi, -réctum.
442
poscd, 3, foe — (so comps.).
possided, 2, -sédi, -sessum [seded].
possid6, 3, “sédi, -sessum.
possum, posse, potul, —, 198. 6 (potis sum,
pote sum, possiem, *poterint, potisit,
potestur, possitur, id., footnote).
potior, ri, potitus.
poto, 1, sete -atum (pdtum).
praebeo, 2 , -ul, -itum [habed}].
prae-cello, %; —, — [-celld].
prae-cin6, 3, -cinui, — [cand].
prae-curro, 3. -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
eS ag es
prae-lego, 3 , -légi, -léctum [ego].
prae-sagio, 4, -ivi, —.
prae-séns, 170. b (see sum).
prae-sided, 2, -sédi, — [seded].
prae-sto, 1, -Stiti, -stitum (-statum) (prae-
stat, impers., 208. c).
prae-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futiirus).
prandeé, 2, prandi, pransum.
prehendo (préndo), 3, -di, prehénsum
(prénsum).
prem6, 3, pressi, pressum [re-prim6].
préndo, see prehendo.
pro-curré, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
prod-ed, 4, -il, -itum, 203. e.
prod-igo, 3, -égi, -actum [ago].
pro-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
pro-fatus, 206. c.
pro-ficis, 3, -féci, -fectum.
pro-ficiscor, -i, profectus.
pro-fiteor, -éri, -fessus.
pro-mined, -ére, -ui, —
promod, 3, -mpsi, -mptum, 15. 3.
pro-silis, 3, -ui (-ivi), — [salid].
~— prdodesse, profui (-futiirus), 198.
pro-tends, 3, -di, -tentus (-sus).
psall6, 3, -1, —
pibéscd, 3, piibui, _—.
pudet (impers. ), pudére, puduit or pudi-
tum est, 208. 6 (pudendus, id. N.).
puerasco, 3, —, —.
pungo [rua], 3 , pupugi, punctum [com-].
putésco, 3, putul, —.
quaerd, 3, quaesivi, quaesitum [re-quiro]
(ef. quaes6).
quaes6, 3, defect., 206. e (cf. quaerd).
quasso, 1, reg., 263, 2.
quatio, 3, -cussi, quassum [con-cutid].
qued, quire, eh quitus, 206. d (quitur,
etc., id. N.); ef. nequed.
queror, -1, questus.
quiésco, 3, quiévi, quiétum.
rabo (rabid), 3, —, —.
rado, 3, rasi, rasum.
rapid, 3, rapul, raptum (érépsémus, 181. b.
N.2 [ab-ripio ete.].
INDEX OF VERBS
re-cid6, 3, reccidi, (recisiirus) [ead6].
re-cid6, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caed6}.
re-cipis, 3 , -cépl, -ceptum [capid] (recépsé,
re-clid6, 3, -si, -sum.
red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum, 209. a. Nn.
red-igo, 3, -€gi, -actum [agé].
red-im6, 3, -€mi, -emptum.
re-fellé, 3, " felli, — [fallo].
re-fercio, 4 , -fersi, -fertum [farcid].
re-ferd, -ferre, rettuli, relatum [ferd].
ré-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 208. c.
re-ficid, 3, -féci, -fectum.
rego, 3, réxi, réctum [ar-rigd ete. ; pergo,
surgo].
re-linqu6, 3, oi, -lictum [linqud].
re-miniscor, -1, —
renided, 2, —, —.
reor, réri, ratus.
re-pell6, 3, reppuli (repuli), repulsum.
reperid, 4, repperi, repertum.
répo, 3, répsi, —
re-prim6, 3, -pressi, -pressum [prem6].
re-quiro, 3, -sivi, -situm [quaer6o].
eee 2, -sedi, —
re-silid, 4, -ul (-ii), - —.
re-sipiseo, 3, ~sipivi, —
re-sist6, 3, -stit ti, —
re-spergo, 3, -si, -sum [spargo].
re-sponded, 2, -di, -sponsum [sponded].
re-stat (impers. ), 208. ¢.
re-st6, 1, ~stiti, — , 209. a. N.
re-tend6, 3, 3, -di, -tum (-sum).
re-tined, 2, ” tinui, -tentum [tened].
re-tund6, 3, rettudi, retiinsum (-tisum).
Birt hee 1, reversus, 191 (reverti, -eram,
id. N.).
ride6, 2, risi, -risum.
riged, 2, rigui, —
rigésco, 3, rigui, —
ringor, 3, rictus.
rod, 3, rdsi, rosum.
rubed, 2, _—,—.
rubésco, 3, rubui, —
rudo, 3, ’rudivi, — ;
rumpo [Rup], 3, rupi, ruptum.
rud, 3 rul, ratum traitirus), 176. e [di-,
cor-
[sapio].
saepid, 4, saepsi, mise
sagid, 4, see prae-
salid, 4, salut (salii) F rasibened [dé-silid].
salve, salvere, 206. g.
sanci6 [sac], 4, sanxi, sanctum, 177. b. N.
sanésco, 3, -sanul, — [con-].
sapio, 3, sapil, —
sarcio, 4, sarsl, sartum.
satis-d6, -dire, -dedi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
scabd, 3, scabi, —
scalpo, $: scalpsi, scalptum.
scand6, 3, -scendi, -scénsum [a-scendG, ete. ].
INDEX OF VERBS
scated (scatd), -Ere or -tre, —, —.
scatiri6, 4, —, —.
scin’ (= : scisne), 13. N. (see scid).
scindo [scrip], 3, scidi, scissum, 177. ¢. N.
scid, 4, -Ivi, | scitum (scin’, 13. N.).
scisco, 3, scivi, scitum.
scribd, 3, seripsi, scriptum, 178. b. n.1.
sculpo, 3, sculpsi, sculptum.
sé-cernd, 3, -crévi, -crétum.
seco, 1, -ui, sectum (also secatiirus).
seded, 2, sédi, sessum [ad-, pos-sided,
etc. ; super-seded).
sé-lig6, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego].
senésco, 5, -senul, —
sentid, 4, sénsi, sensum.
sepelid, 4, sepelivi, sepultum.
sequor, -1, sectitus, 190.
sero (entwine), 3, serui, sertum.
sero (sow), 3, sévi, satum.
Serpo, 3, se rpsi, aoe
sido, 3, ‘adi ead), -sessum.
siled, 2, ie,
singultio, 4 » -1v1, —.
sind, 3, sivi, situm (siris, etc., 181. b. N.1).
sistd [sra], 3, stiti, statum.
sitid, 4, -ivi, —
sodés (=si ‘audés), 13. N.
soled, solére, solitus, 192.
solv6, 3, solvi, solitum, 177. e, 261. N.
sond, 1, -ui, -itum (-dtiirus).
sorbed, 2, sorbui (rarely sorpsi), —
spargo, 3, sparsi, sparsum [ad-spergo].
spernd, 3, sprévi, sprétum, 177. a. N.
-spicis, 3, ee -spectum.
splendes, 2 » “ul, —.
sponded, 2, ‘spopondi, sponsum [re-].
spud, 3, -spul, —
squaled, 2, —, —.
statud, 3, -ui, -itum, 176. d [con-stitud].
sternd, 3, stravi, stratum, 177. a. N.
sternud, 3, sternui,
stertd, 3, -stertui, —.
-stingud, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum (in comp.,
as eX-).
std, stare, steti, -statum (-stit-), 209. a,
and N.
strep6, 3, strepul, —
stri ed, 3, stridi, —
strid6, 3, stridi, —
string6, 3, strinxi, strictum.
strud, 3, stri:xi, striictum.
studed, 2, -ui, —
stuped, 2, stupul, —
stupéscé, 3, -stupul, —
suaded, 2, suasi, suasum.
sub-d6, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
sub-igo, 3, -€gi, -actum [agd].
suc-cid6, 3, -cidi, — [cad].
suc-cid6, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caed6].
suc-eurrd, 5 -curri, -cursum,
suésco, 3, suévi, suétum.
- 443
suf-ferd, gsi sustuli, sublatum.
suf- ficid, 3 , -féci, pee es s [facio].
suf-fodio, 3, -fodi, -f
sug-gero, 3. -gessl, sfonaaaty
sugo, 3, sixi, siictum.
sultis (= si vultis), 13. n
sum, esse, ful, (fatarus), 170; fui (forem,
fore, 170. a; tsdns, -séns, éns, id.
faivimus, fii visset, uk fuam, fuas,
escit, escunt, id. db. ; homdst, ete.,
13. N.).
sumd, 3, siimpsi, simptum, 15. 11.
sud, 3, sul, situm.
super-do, -dire, -dedi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
super-fit, defect., 204. ec.
super-flud, 3, —, — [flud].
super-sto, 1, -steti, —
super-sum, see sum (superest, impers.,
208. c).
surdéscé, 3, surdui, —
surgo (sur-rigd), 3, surréxi, surréctum.
sur-ripid, 3, -ui (surpui), -reptum [rapid].
tabed, 2, -ui, —.
tabésco, 3, tabui, —.
taedet (impers.), Bre, taeduit, pertaesum
est, 208. 0.
tangd [rac], 3, tetigi, tactum, 176. c. 2
[con-tingo].
tego, 3, téxi, téctum, 186.
temn6, 3, -tempsi, -temptum, 176. 6. 1.
tendo [rex], 3, tetendi, tentum.
tened, 2, tenui, -tentum [con-tined, otegs
tepésco, 3, tepul, —
terged, 2, tersi, tersum.
tergo, 3, ‘tersi, tersum.
ter6, 3, trivi, tritum.
tex6, 3, texul, textum.
timed, 2, -ui, —
-timéscd, 3, -timui, —.
tingd (tingud), 3; tinxi, tinctum, 178. b.N.3,
toll6, 3, sustuli, sublatum, 211. f. N.
[at-toll6].
tonded, 2, -totondi (-tondi), tonsum, 177. ¢.
tond, 1, -ui, -tonitum (-tonatum).
torped, "2, —_,—.
torqued, 2, torsi, tortum.
torred, 2, torrui, tostum.
tra-dé, 3, -didi -ditum, 209. a. N.
trahd, 3, traxi, fractum (traxe, 181. b. N.2).
trans-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum,
trem6, 3, tremui, —
tribud, 3, tribui, tribitum.
trid6, 3, trisi, trisum.
tueor, ri, tuitus (titus, adj.).
tumeé, 2, —, —.
tuméscé, 3, “tumui, — [in-].
tund6é iene 3, tutudi, tinsum (-tiisum)
[ob-tundd
turged, 2, tursi, —
tussi6, 4.—, —.
444
ulciscor, -i, ultus.
ungod (ud), 3, inxi, inctum.
urged, 2, ursi, —
iro, 3, ussi, ustum (so comps., cf. also
combird).
iitor, -i, isus,
vacat (impers -), 208. ¢.
vad, 3, -vasi, -vasum.
a i, 4, -ii, —.
valed, 2, an (itarus).
valésco, 3 , “ul, —
vanésed, 3, -vanui, — [é-].
vehé, 3, vexi, vectum.
vello (volld), °3, velli (-vulsi), vulsum.
vénds, 3, idi, ewer ne i.
véned "(be sold), 4, -ii, -Itum, 428. 7.
venid (come), 4, véni, ventum, 19, 174.
vénum-do, -dire, -dedi, -ditum, 209. a.N.,
vereor, -éri, -itus, 190.
vergo, 3, —, —.
verro (vorrd), 3 » -verri, versum.
INDEX OF VERBS
vertd (vortd), 3, verti, versum, 178. 6. N.!
(vertor, mid., 156. a. N.).
vescor, -1, —
vesperascit (impers. ); on a, 263. 1.
veterasco, 3, veteravl, —
veto, 1, -ui, ‘itum.
vided, >, vidi, visum.
videor (seem), -€ri, visus (vidétur, im-
pers., 208. ¢
vied, 2, (vievil, -étum.
viged, 2 ? -ui, —
vin’ (= visne, see vold).
vinci6, 4, vinxi, vinctum.
vincd [vic}, 3, vici, victum.
vired, 2, -ui, —.
Viso ey 3, Visi, —, 263. 4. N.
Viviscd, 3, -vixi, — fre-].
vivo, 3, vixi, viectum (vixet, 181. b. N.?).
vols, velle, volui, 199 (siltis, 13. N.
199. N.3 vin’, 13. N.).
volv6, 3, volvi, voliitum.
vomd6, 3, vomui, —
voved, 2, vovi, votum.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Nore. — The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the
page (p.) is referred to. The letters and some numerals refer to subsections. The
letter N. signifies Note; ftn., footnote. Abl. ablative; acc.=accusative; adj.—
adjective ; adv. =adverb or adverbial ; apod. = apodosis; app.=appositive or appo-
sition; cf.—compare; comp. —=compound or composition; compar.—=comparative or
comparison ; conj.=conjugation or conjunction ; constr.—construction; dat.—dative;
gen.=genitive; gend.—gender; imy.=imperative; ind. disc. =indirect discourse ;
loc. =locative; nom.=nominative;
subjunctive; vb.=verb; w.=with.
A, quantity of final, 604. d.
a, ace. of Greek nouns in, 81. 2; as nom.
"ending, decl. III, gend.,
a, in deel. I, 37; stem-vowel of conj. I,
"171, 174, 179. a, 259; in subjunctive,
179; preps. in -a, Borie use of, 433. 4.
a-, primary suffix, 234. I. 1.
a (ab, abs), use, 220. b, 221. 1, 429.6; com-
pounded with vbs., 267. a; Ww. abl. of
agent, 405; w. place from which, 426.1;
w.names of towns, 428. a; expressing
position, 429. b; as adv. expressing dis-
tance, w. abl. of degree of difference,
433. 3; in comps., w. dat., 381; in
a ., Ww. abl., 402; w. abl. of ger-
eparts, 398, 429. b.
ab and au in auferd, 200. a. N.
Abbreviations of prenomens, 108. ¢.
Ability, verbs of, constr., 456; in apod.,
517. ¢.
ABLATIVE, defined, 35. e; in -abus, 43.
e; in-d, 43. n.1, "49. e, 80. ftn., 92. f;
of i-stems, decl. Ii, "74. e;. rules ‘of
form, 76; nouns having abl. in -1, 76. a,
b; of ‘decl. IV, in -ubus, 92. c; abl. used
as supine, 94. 6; of adjs., deel. II, 121.
a. 1-4; preps. followed by, 220 6 b: ad-
verbial forms of, 214. e, cf. 215. 4.
ABLATIVE, Syntaz, 398-420 ; classifica-
tion and meaning, 398, 399. Separation,
400; w.vbs. of freedom, 401; w.comps.,
402; w. adjs. of freedom ete., 402. a.
Source an material, 403; w. partici-
ples, id. a; w. constare ete. ., id. 6; w.
facere, id. c; w. nouns, id. d. Cause,
404 ; causa, gratia, id. c. Agent, 405;
means for agent, 405. b. n.1. Compari-
son, 406; opinidne, spé, ete., id. a; w.
prep.=preposition; subj.=subject; subjv.=
(Other abbreviations present no difficulty.)
alius, 407. d; w. advs., id.e. Means,
409; w. dnd etc., 364; w. itor, fruor,
etc., 410; w. opus and tisus, 411. Man-
ner, 412. Accompaniment, 413. Degree
of difference, 414; qué... ed, 414.
a. Quality, 415; price, 416; charge or
penalty, 353.1. Specification, 418; w.
dignus ete., id. 6. Abl. Absolute, 419;
adverbial use, id. c; replacing subord.
elauses, 420; sup lying ong of pert.
act. part., 493. 2. lace, 422, 426. 3; w.
vbs. and’ frétus, 431 and a. Abl. of
time, 423; of time w. quam, 434. n.; of
place from which, 426. 1; names of
towns, domus, ris, 427. 1; ex urbe Roma,
428. b. Locative abl., 426. 3; way by
which, 429. a; w. transitive compounds,
395. N.1; time within which, 424. ¢;
duration of time, id. 6. Abl. w. preps.,
220. b, 221, 430, 435; w. ex for part. gen. ”
346. c; w. pro ‘lin defence of), 379. N.;
Ww. palam etc., 432. c; abl. of gerund,
507 ; equiv. to pres. carta id. ftn.
Ablaut, 17; in decl. Il, 45. ec.
Abounding, words of, w. abl., 409. a; w.
gen., 356.
Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 401.
Absolute case, see Abl. Absolute.
‘Absolute use of vb., 273. 2. N.2, 387. N.
absque mé etc., in Pl. and Ter., 517. f.
Abstract nouns, gend., 32; in plur., 100.
c; endings, 238; w. neut. adj., 287.4. a,
289 ; abstract quality denoted by neut.
» 289. a.
absum, constr., 373. 6.
-abus, ‘in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 43. e.
ac, see atque.
ac si, w. subjy., 524.
Acatalectie verse, 612. a.
445
446
accédit ut, 569. 2.
Accent, rules of, 12; effect in modifying
vowels, p. 27. ttn. 1; in decl. II, 49. 6;
in comps. of faci6, 204. b; musical, 611.
acceptum, 496. Nn. 4.
accidit, synopsis, 207 ; ; constr., 569. 2.
accingo, constr., 36
accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund etc.,
505. a.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 413.
Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjv., 568.
ACCUSATIVE, defined, 35. d; in -m and
-8, 38. c; in -im, Soa II, 75. a, 6; in
5 (plur.), 77; in -a, 81. 2; acc. of
decl. IV, used as supine, 94. b; neut.
acc. used as ady., 214. d, cf. 215.1; fem.
used as adv., id. 2.
AccusATIVE, Syntax, 386-397 (see 338) ;
w. vbs. of remembering, 350 and a, c,
d; and gen. w. vbs. of reminding, 351;
w. impersonals, 354.0, 388.c, 455.2; w.
ad with interest and réfert, 355.6; w.
dat., 362; w. compounds of ad, ante,
ob, 370. b; vbs. varying between acc.
of end of motion and dat., 363; w. ad
for dat., 385. a; after propior etc., 432. a;
direct object, 274, 387; w. iuvo etc.,
367. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., 367. b, ¢;
ace. w. vbs. of feeling and taste, 388. a,
390. a; w. comps. of circum and trans,
388. b; cognate acc., 390; adverbial use
of, 390. c, d and n.2, 397. a; two accu-
satives, 391; pred. acc., 392-3; second-
ary object, 394-5; ace. w. pass. of vbs.
of asking etc., 396. BLN. ; synecdochical
ace. (of specification), 397: b; in excla-
mations, id. d; duration and extent,
423, 425; end of motion, 426.2; names
of towns, domus, ris, 427, 2; ROmam
ad urbem, 428. b; ‘ace. w. ante diem, 424,
g; W. preps., 220.a,¢; w. ad or in to
denote penalty, 353. 2. N.; w. pridié,
propius, etc., 342. a; acc. of gerund,
506; of anticipation, 576; subj. of inf.,
397. e,452, 455.2, 459; as pred. after inf.,
455. a; subj. in ind. ‘disc., 579, 581.
Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr.,
acer, decl., 115; compar., 125.
-~Aceus, adj. ending, 247.
aciés, decl., 98. a.
acquiésco, w. abl., 431.
Actions, names of, 237; nouns of action
w. gen., 348.
Active voice, 154. a, 156; change to pass.,
Acts, nouns denoting, 239.
-acus (-Acus), adj. ending, 249.
acus, gend., 90. Hxe.
ad , use, 220. a, 221. 2; incomp., 16, te ‘eye
w. acc. to denote ‘penalty, 353. 2. N.;
ADVERBS, Syntax, 321.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
in comps., w. dat., 370, 381; in comps.,
W. acc., 370. b; Ww. ace. with adjs., 385.
a; end of motion, 426. 2, cf. 363; Ww.
names of towns, 428, a; Ww. names of
countries, 428. c; meaning near, 428. d;
in expressions of time, 424. e; following
its noun, 435; w. gerund, 506,
additur, constr.,
aded (verb), constr., 370. b.
adeo ut, 537. 2. nN. 2.
-adés, patronymic ending, 244.
adiuvo, w. ace., 367. a.
Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns.
ADJECTIVES. Definition, 20.6; formed
like nouns, 109; 4- and o-stems, 110-
112. Declension, 110-122; decl. I and
Il, 110-113; decl. Ill, 114-121; decl.
Ill, three terminations, 115; one termi-
nation, 117, 118; variable, indeclinable,
defective, 122. Comparison, 123-131;
decl. of comparative, 120. Numeral
adjs., 132-137; derivative adjs., 242-255.
ADJECTIVES, Syntax. Mase. adjs., 122
d; adjs. of com. gend., id.; as advs.,
214. d, e (cf. 218), 290; adj. as app.,
282. 6b; as nouns, 288, 289; nouns used
as adjs., 321. c; advs. used as adjs.,
321. d; participles used as adjs., 494.
Agreement of adjs., 286, 287; attribute
and predicate, 287; use of neut. adjs.,
289. Adjs. w. adverbial force, 290. Two
comparatives w. quam, 292. Adj. pro-
nouns, 296-298. Gen. of adjs. of deel.
III instead of nom., 343. c. N.1. Adjs.
w. part. gen., 346. 2; w. dat., 383; w.
acc., 388. d. N. 2, w. inf., 461; w. supine
in -ii, 510. Position of ’adjs., 598. a, b.
Adjective phrase, at
admodum, use, 291. c. N.
admoned, ‘constr., 351.
Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 563.
Adonic verse, 625. 3.
adspergo, constr., 364.
adilor, constr., 367. b.
Adverbial acc., 390. b, c, d, and N. 2, 397. a.
Adverbial conjunctions, 20. g. N.
Adverbial phrases, 216, 277.
ADVERBS, Gefined, 20. e; formed from
adjs., 214 and ¢, d, e, 218; case-forms or
phrases, 215; comparison of advs., 218;
numeral advs. ., 138. Classification of
advs., 217; correlative forms of adys.
of place, 217. N.
Advs. used as
adjs., 321. d; adjs. w. adverbial force,
290 ; ‘adverbial abl, abs.,419.c. Special
uses, 322, 326. Advs. w. nouns, 321. ¢.
zy correlative advs. used as conjs., 323.
hi part. gen. w. advs., 346. @.4; dat.
vs., 384; compar. of adv. followed
os quam, 406; ady. as protasis, 521. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
ee soinetlons: 223. a. 2, 224.
Lb.
adversus, 219; w. acc., 220. a; as adv.,
433. 2.
ae, diphthong, 2; sound of, 6. n.3, 8.
aedés, sing. and plur., 107. a.
aeger, decl., 112. a.
aemulor, constr., 367. b.
Aeneadés, decl., 44.
Aenéas, decl., 44.
aequalis, decl., 76. a. 2; constr. w. gen.,
385. ¢ and 1.
aequé ac, 384. n. 2.
aequo (abl.), w. compar., 406. a.
aequor, decl., 64.
aér, use of plur., 100. Db.
aes, use of plur., 100. 0.
aetas, decl., 72.
aethér, decl., 81.
Affecting, acc. of, 386.
affinis, decl., 76. b.2; constr. w. gen., 385.
c and 1.
Affirmative, expressed by two negatives,
326; nonne expecting affirm. answer,
332. b; ways of saying yes, 336 and a.
“Agency, nouns of, 256; rel. clause equiy-
alent to, 308. c.
Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 374; w.
perf. parts., 375; abl. of, 405; agent
regarded as means, id. b; animal as
agent, id. n.2
ager, decl., 47.
aggredior, constr., 370. 6.
Agnomen, 108. a. N.
ago, forms of, omitted, 319. a.
Agreeing, verbs of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Agreement, 280; of nouns, 281; in app.,
282; in predicate, 283; of adjs., 286;
of demonstrative pronouns, 296; of
Sessive pronouns, 302; of relatives,
305, 306; of verbs, 316, 317.
-ai for -ae, decl. I, 43. a; 603. a. 2. N.
-dia, nouns in, decl., 43. e. N.?.
aio, ‘pronounced ai-io, 6. ¢.
-dius, names in, decl., 49. /; -aius in Pros-
ody, 603. f. N.2.
-al, ending, 254. 7; nouns in, 68. ftn.
-al and a neuters in (decl. It, iy ,
76. a.
alacer, Pag 115. a; compar., 131. b.
albus, not compared, 131. d.
Aleaic verse, 625. 9, 10.
Alemanian strophe, 617. a.
-ale, noun ending, 254. 7; list of nouns
in, 68. ftn. 2
os for ichnasits gen. of alius, 113. d,
ats
aliquis (-qui), decl., 151.¢; meaning, 310,
311 ;
aliquot, indeclinable, 122. b.
“alis, -aris, adj. endings, 248.
447
alius, decl., 113; gen., id. ¢, ef. 343; com-
pounds, 113. e; alius w. abl., ac, nisi,
quam, 407. d.
alius ... alius, 315. a.
Alphabet, i Ye vowels and diphthongs, 1, 2;
consonants, 3, 4; early forms of letters,
1. a and n., 6. a, b
alter, decl., 113. 6; gen. and comps., id.
o 8 use, 315; reciprocal use, 145. ¢
a.
alter... alter, 315. a.
altera est rés ut, 568. fin. 2.
alteruter, decl. , 113. e; use, 315.
Although, how expressed, 527, 535. e.
alvos (alvus), gend., 48. Exc.
am-, see amb-,
-am, adv. ending, 215. 2.
amb- (am-, an-), peerenle prefix, 267. b.
ambagés, decl.,
ambd, decl. »P- ae Pe ; 5 in, p. 427. ftn. 1.
améns, decl., 121. a. 3.
amplius, without quam, 407. ¢.
pemaprauge acc., 75. a. 3, 103. b. 4.
, See amb-,
oy ‘anne, annon, - double questions, 335.
Anacrisis, 608
Anapeest, 609. db. CF anapzestic verse, 613,
628. a.
Anaphora, 598. f.
anceps, decl., 121. a. 3.
Anchisés, decl., 44.
Andromaché, decl., 44.
~aneus, adj. ending, 247.
animal, decl., 69
Animals, gend. of names of, 32, 34 and
N. i. regarded as means or agent, 405. 0.
N.
animi (loc.), w. adjs., 358; w. vbs., id.
annalis, decl., 76. a.
Annalistie present, 469. a.
Answers, forms of, 336, 337.
ant-, ent-, stem-endings, 83. e.
ante, 220. a; uses, 221.3; compounded w.
vbs. ra 267. a a; in compoun: S, w. dat.,
370, w. acc., id. 6; adverbial use of,
433. 1; followed by quam, 434.
ante diem, 424. g.
Antecedent, its use w. relative, 305-307 ;
undefined, constr., 535. See Indefinite
antecedent.
antecéd6, constr., 370. b.
anteed, constr., 370 b.
antegredior, constr., 370. b.
Antepenult, defined, 12.,ftn.
antequam, 550, 551; in ind. disc., 585. 6. N.
Antibacchius, 609. d.N.
Anticipation, ace. of, 576; becomes nom.
id. N.
Antithesis, 598. /.
anus, gend., 90. Hac.
-Anus, adjs. in, 249.
448
Aorist (= hist. perf.), 161. 2, 473.
apage, 206. g.
apertus, compar. of, 124. a
Apex, 10. n.
apis, decl., 78. 2.
Apodosis, defined, 512; introduced by
correl., id. 6; may be subord., id. ¢;
forms of, 514, 515 ff. Lei grrp subjv.,
447.3.N. : subjv. of modesty 447.1; vbs.
of necessity etc., 522.a; complex apod.,
523; apod. omitted, 524; apod. in ind.
dise. + 589. 2. See Conditional Sen-
tences.
Appointing, vbs. of, constr., 393.
Apposition, see Ap sitive.
Appositive, defined, 282; agreement of,
281, 282. c; w. loc., id. d; gen. as app.
to possessive, 302. e; gen. used for app.,
343. d; so dat., 373. a; rel. clause equiy-
alent to app., ’308. Cc; acc. as app. to a
clause, 397. t; app. instead of voc.,
340. a; app. in connection with inf.,
452 and n.?.
aptus ad, 385. a; aptus w. dat. of gerund
etc., 505. a. ftn. 2; aptus qui, 535. f.
apud, 220. a; use, 221.4; in quoting, 428.
d. N.?.
aqualis, decl., 76. a. 2.
-ar, nom. ending, decl. III, 68. a, 65. b,
76. a. 2; 68. ftn. 1; gend., 87.
arbor (-6s), decl., 62. n.2.
arced, constr., 364. N. 2.
Archilochian verse, 622.
arctus, gend., 48. Hc.
arded, w. abl., 404. a.
-aria, suffix, 254. 2.
-aris, adj. ending, 248.
Aristophanic verse, 625. 2.
-arium, noun ending, 254. 3.
-arius, ‘adj. ending, 250. a; noun ending,
254. 1
Arrang ement of words, 595-601.
Arsis uk thesis, 611 and ftn.
Arts, names of, decl. I, 44.
artus, decl., 92. C.
as, value of, 632; gen. of, 417. a.
-4s, in acc. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 5.
-as, old gen. ending, 43.6; Greek nom.
ending, 83. €; patronymic, 244; gend.
of nouns in, 86. 0; -as, -atis, see at-;
adjs. in -ds, 549,"
Asclepiadic verse, 625. 5, 6.
Asking, vbs. of, w. two acc., 396; w.abl.,
396. a; Ww. subjunctive clause, 563.
Aspirates, 4 and ftn. 2
Assertions, direct, in indic., 157. a.
Assimilation of consonants, 15. 6, 10; in
prefixes, 16.
~ass0, -Assere, in fut. perf., 183. 5.
ast, 324. d.
aster, as noun ending, 254. 11.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Asyndeton, 323. b, 601. ¢.
At, meaning near, 428. d.
at, use, 324. d; at enim, id. ; at vérd, 324. kh,
- one: stem-ending, 71. 5; decl., 78.
ater, decl., 112. a; not compared, 131. d
and N.
Athematic verbs, 174. 2.
Athos, decl., 52.
Atlas, decl., 82, 83. e.
atque (ac), use, Bo. b, c; after adjs. of like-
ness, 384. N.2; after alius, 407. d.
atqui, use, 324. d
atrox, decl., rm a.
Attraction of case of relative, 306. a; of
case of antecedent, id. N.; of subject i in
ind. disce., 581. N
Attraction, sabtancine of, 591. 2, 593.
Attributive adjective defined, 285. 1;
number, 286. a; takes gend. of near-
est noun, 287. 1.
-atus, adj. ending, 246
audacter, compar., 218.
aula, decl., 44.
aureus, not compared, 131. d.
ausus as pres. part., 491.
aut, use, 324. e, 335. d. N.
autem, use, 324. d,j, 599. b.
Author w. apud, 498. d. N. 2.
avis, Goal, 76 in Prosody, 602
avis, dec -1.
-ax, Raney oat. ending, 251; adjs. in,
W. gen., 349. c.
baccar, decl., 76. a. 3.
Bacchiac verse, 628. 0.
Bacchius, 609. d.
Baiae, decl., 43. e. nN. 2.
-bam, tense-ending, 168. b.
Bargaining, vbs. of, constr., wet) gerun-
dive, 500. 4; clause, 563. d.
Base, 27.
basis, decl., 82.
eginning, vbs. of, constr., 456.
elieving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
ene loc. use of, 427. a.
bellum, decl., 46.
bellus, compar., 131. a.
Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 385. c.
bene, comparison, 218; in phrase com-
pounds, 12. a. Exe. 1, 266. b; com-
pounds of, constr., 368. 2.
Benefiting, vbs. of, constr., 367.
-ber, names of months in, decl., 115. a.
bicolor, decl., 122. a.
bicorpor, 119. Nn.
-bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252.
Birds, gend. of names of, 32.
Birth or origin, nouns of , derivation, 244;
participles of, w. abl., "403. a.
-bo, tense-ending, 168. c.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Bi, decl., 49. f.
bonus, decl., 110; compar., 129; w. dat. of
gerund ete., 505. a. ftn.
bos, decl., 79 and b.
bri-, stems ending in, 66; adjs. in, 115. a.
-brum, suffix, 240.
-bulum, suffix, 240 240.
~bundus, verbals in, 253. b; w. acc., 388. d.
n.2.
biris, decl., 75. a. 1.
Buying, vbs. of, constr. with, 417. e.
C for g, in early use and as abbreviation,
1. a and. ; for qu, 6. a, b; quantity of
final syllables ending i in, 604. Ss
caedés, decl., 78. 2.
caelés, "decl., "121. a. 4.
caelum, w. mase. Bes 106. b.
Caere, decl., 76. b. N
caesius, compar., 131.
Cesura, 611. b; masce. af fem., 615. c. N.;
bucolic czesura, id.
Calendar, Roman, 631.
Calends, 631. a.
calx, decl., 103. g. 2.
campester, decl., 115. a.
Can, how expressed in Lat., 157. b.
canalis, decl., 76. b. 2.
canis, decl. and stem, 62. N.%, 76. 0. N. 3,
78. 1.
CAP, root, 56. a.
Capacity, measures of, 638.
capitis, genitive, w. verbs of accusing,
352. a.
caput, decl., 59.
Capys, decl., 82.
carbasus, gend., 48. Exc.; plur., 106. b.
Cardinal numbers, 132; inflection of, 134.
a-c; use of et with, 135. a, b; replaced
by. distributives, 137. b,d; w. exor par-
titive genitive, 346. c.
caré, compar., 218.
caro, decl., 79.
carus, compar., 124.
Case-constructions, 338.
Case-endings, 27. a; final vowels in, 38. 9;
table, 39.
Case-forms, words defective in, 103.
Cases, defined, 35; position of modifying
case, 598. 2; agreement in, 281; origin
and meaning of, 338; case of rel. pron.,
305, 306. a; same case after as before
certain con js., 323. a. Construction of
Cases, ; Genitive, 342-359;
Dative, 360-380; Accusative, 386-397 :
Vocative, 340; Ablative, 398-420 ; time
and place, 493-431 ; ; cases w. preps.,
220, 426. itn.
cassem, decl., 103. f. 3.
castrum, castra, 107.
Catalectic verse, 612. a.
449
causa, w. gen., 359. b, 404.¢; w. gen. of
gerund, 504. b. } =
Causal clauses, 539, 540; w. indic. or
subjv., quod, quia, 540; w. indic., quoni-
am, quandG, 540. a; W. ui, 535. e; w. cum,
540. d; non quia, non quod, etc. +, in the
denial of a reason, 540. n.8; causal
Pag replaced by part., 496 ; "by abl.
abs
Causal conjunctions, 223. a.3, 6.7, 224. II.
J; particles, 539, 540.
Cause, abl. of, 404.
Cause, advs. of, 217. ¢.
Caution and effort, verbs of, constr.,
563. e.
cavé, in ee 450 ? and n.?;
né omitted after, 565. n.1.
caved, constr., 563.
-ce, enclitic, 146. N.J and a. n.1,
Ceasing, verbs of, Ww. complem. ‘inf., 456.
cédo, constr., 366. N.
celeber, decl., 115. a.
celer, forms, 115. a. NL.
céld, w. acc., 396. c.
Celtibér, decl., 50. c.
cénseo, constr., 563 and d.
certé, cert, use, 322. c; in answers, 336. a.
cété, Greek plur., 48. a. N.
cétera, 111. 6; adverbial use, 390. d. Nn. 2;
-us, use, 293; -1, use, 315.
ceu, use, 524
-ceus, adj. ending, 247.
Characteristic, clauses of, 534, 535;
viso, 535.d; cause or concession, id. e;
of result or characteristic, 559.
Characteristic, expr. by participle, 496.
Characteristic vowel, 37.
Charge and penalty, gen. of, 352.
Chiasmus, 598. f and n.
Choliambic trimeter, 618. ce.
Choosing, vbs. of, w. two accs., 393.
Choriambic verse, 624. N.
Choriambus, 609. c.
ci and ti, interchange of, 6. N.1.
-cinium, noun ending, 241. ¢.
-cid, diminutive ending, 243. a.
cip-, stems in, decl. III, 56. a.
circa, circum, circiter, use, 220. a, 221. 5-7;
as ‘advs., 433. 2.
circa, w. gerund, 506. Nn. 1.
circum, compounds w. vbs., 267. a; dat.
w. such comps., 370; acc., 388. b.
circumdd, constr., 364.
Circumstances of action, 419, 420. 5;
participle implying, 496.
cis, citerior, 130
Cities, gend. of Pear of, 32 and a.
Locative.
citra, after its noun, 435.
cladés, decl., 78. 2.
clam, constr., 432. d.
See
450
Classes, names of, gend. of, 30. a. n.3;
used in plur., 101. 3.
Clauses, efined, kinds of, 278, 279; re-
placed by abl. abs., 420; used as
nouns, 343. ¢c; dependent, syntax of,
519-593; conditional rel., 279. ¢, 519;
final, 279. d, 529-533; consecutive,
536, "537; causal, 539, bao; temporal,
543-556 ; ” substantive, 562-588 ; infini-
tive clauses, 452, 562. N.; substantive
clauses of purpose, 563; of result, 567,
568; indic. w. quod, 572; indirect ques-
tions, 573-575; ind. disc., 578-593.
clavis, decl., 76. . 1.
Close 'syllables, 7. N.%,
coepi, 205.
Cognate acc., 214. d. N., 390.
Cognomen, 108.
geo pi noun with sing. or plur. vb.,
317. d.
colus, gend., 90; decl., 105. a.
com- (con-), compounded w. vbs., 16, 267.
a; such may take dat., 370.
Combinations of words, 13.
cométés, decl., 44.
comitium, comitia, 107.
Command, see Imperative; in hortatory
subjv., 439,
Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 367; w.
inf., 563. a; eee BY: , 563 (cf. 580. a).
Commands, expres by imv., 448; for
condition, 521. 6; in ind. disc., 588; in
informal ind. dise., 592. 1.
commiseror, w. acc., 354. a. N.
committo ut, 568 and n.1.
Common gender, 34; adjs. of, 122. d.
Common syllables, 11. c, 603. f.
commonefaci6, -fi0, constr., 351.
commoned, constr., 351.
commiinis, w. gen., 385. c.
commits, constr., 417. b.
Comparative conjunctions, 223. 6.2, 224.
IL. 6; in conditions, 524.
Comparative suftix, 124, ftn.; of advs.,
214. b. N.
Comparatives, decl., 120; stem, id. b;
neut. sing. of compar. adj. used as adv.,
218; meaning of, 291; two compara-
tives, 292; compar. and positive w.
quam, id. a. N.; abl. w. compar., 406;
quam w. compar., 407. @; compar. w.
quam (ut), quam qui, 535. c, 571. a.
Comparison, conjunctions of, 323. a.
Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi,
ete., constr., 524.
Comparison of adjs., 123 ff.; irregular,
129; defective, 130, 131; w. magis and
maximé, 128; of advs., 218; preposi-
tions implying, w. quam, 407. e. N., 434.
Complementary infinitive, 456 ; has no
subject, id. N.; pred. noun or adj. after,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
458; inf. partly subject, partly comple-
mentary, 454; by analogy, 457. a.
compled, constr., 356, 409. N
Completed action, tenses of, 160.6; how
formed, 179. f, g; use of, 473 ff.
Complex conditional sentences, 523.
Complex sentence, 278. b
complirés, compliria, 120. c.
compos, decl., 121. a.4, b.1.
Composition, all word-formation a pro-
cess of, 227; comp. to express relations
of words, 338, 386. See Comp. words.
Compound sentence, defined, 278. 2.
Compound stems, eo eat 255. a.
Compound suffixes, 233. 2, 235.
Compound verbs, 267; comps. of facié,
204. a, b.
Compound words, assimilation in, 15. 6,
16; defined, 264; how formed, 265-267.
Compounds of preps., w. dat., 370; of ab,
dé, ex, 381; w. acc., 388. b, 395; quan-
tity of, 606. c.
con-, see com-,
Conative present, 467; imperfect, 471. c.
concéd6, constr., 563 and ec.
Concession, hortatory subjy. of, 440 (cf.
526) ; particles of, 527; quamvis, ut, 527.
a; licet, id.b; etsi etc., id.c; cum, 549;
quamquam, 527.d,e; quamvis, w. indic-
ative, 527. e; vbs. of, w. ut, 527. f;
abl. abs. for concessive clause, 420. 3;
concession implied in part., 496; qui
concessive, 535. e.
Concessive clauses, see Concession.
Concessive conjunctions, 223. 6.3, 224,
II. c; particles, use of, 527.
Conclusion, see Apodosis.
Concords, the four, 280.
concors, decl., 119, 121. a. 3.
Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 352.
Conditional clauses, defined, 279. ce.
Conditional conjunctions, 223. b. 1, 224.
II. a, 525.
Conditional Particles, 524, 525.
Conditional sentences, defined, 279. ¢;
development, 511; protasis and apodo-
sis, 512; classification, 514; Presentand
Past, nothing implied, B15: Future con-
ditions, 516; fut. more vivid, id. 2. a;
fut. less vivid, id. 2. 6; perf. indic. in
fut. cond., id. e; Contrary to fact, 517;
indic. in contrary to fact condition, id.
b, ef. ¢ and notes; in old Latin, id.
e. N.2; General condition, 518; condi-
tion disguised, 521; as part. ete., id.
a; as exhortation or command, id. b.;
protasis omitted, 522; Potential Subjv.,
446; Subjv. of Modesty, 447. 1; vbs.
of necessity etc., 522. a; complex
conditions, 523; clauses of Comparison
(conclusion omitted), 524; Concessive
~, ae
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
clauses, 527; Proviso, 528; use of si
and its comps., 525; conditional relative
clauses, 519; temporal, 542, 551. c. N.2;
conditional sentences in ind. disc., 589.
confid6, constr., 431 and n.1.
Conjugation, defined, 22. Conjugation
of verbs, 171-193; how distinguished,
71; regular forms of, 173; mixed
forms, id.; parallel forms, 189; stem-
vowels of conjugations, 171-178; stems
of the four conjugations, how modified,
179; paradigms of the four regular con-
jugations, 184-212.
Conjunctions, defined, 20. g; classes of,
223; list of, 224. Syntax, 323. a, 324.
a-k, 539, 540. notes; correlative use,
323. g; conjs. repeated, id. e; omitted,
id. b; used together, 324. k.
Conjunctive adverbs, 20. g. N.
Conjunctive phrases, 224.
Connectives, relatives used as, 308. f.
conor, w. inf., 563. e.; cdnor si, id. N.1.
Consecutive clauses, defined, 279.e; uses,
; clauses of result or charac-
teristic, 559.
LE pale conjunctions, 223. b. 5, 224.
.@.
consequor ut, 568.
cOnsistere, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. 2, 431.
Consonant stems of nouns, decl. III, 56-
64; cons. stems of adjs., 117; case-
forms, 121; of verbs, 259. a. 3.
Consonant suffixes (primary), 234. II.
Consonants, classification, 3; changes,
14-19; insertion, 15. 11; transposition,
177. a. N.; dissimilation, 15. 6; assimila-
ya id. 16; pronunciation, 8 and N.,
.b.N.
consors, decl., 121. a. 3.
constare, w. abl., 403. b.
constitud, constr., 563. d.
Constrictid ad sensum, see Synesis.
Constructions of cases, 338-435 (see under
Abl. ete.).
consuévi, use, 476.
consul, decl., 62.
consularis, decl., 76. a. 2.
consuld, w. dat. or acc., 367. c.
ore agra words of, constr., 368. a,
413. b.
contentus, w. abl., 431. a; w. perf. inf.,
continéri, w. abl., 403. b. ftn.
contingit ut, 568.
Continued action, tenses of, 160, 161.
Continuing, vbs. of, w. complementary
., 456.
contra, use, 220. a, 221. 8, 321. d; asadv.,
433. 4; ition, 435.
Contracted forms, vin’, scin’, 13. N.; gen.
in -i, dat. and abl. in -is, 49. a, b.
451
Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Contraction of vowels, 15. 3; quantity,
aa 5 in prosody, 603. ¢; of syllables,
Contrary to fact conditions, 517; in ind.
dise., 589. b.
convenio, w. acc., 370. b.
Coérdinate conjunctions, 223. a, 224.
a-d; coord. clauses, 278. a; coord.
rhe without conj., 323. b; w. conj.,
id. ¢.
Copula, 272, 283; position of, 598. 7.
Copulative conjunctions, 223. a. 1, 224. I.
a; constr. after, 323 ; omission of, 323. b.
Copulative verbs, 272, 283.
cor, decl., 59, 60. b, 103. g. 2.
corpus, decl., 64.
Correlatives, 152, 323. g; rendered by
the... the, 414. a; advs. of place, 217.
a; conjs., 323. f, g.
cos, decl., 103. g. 2.
Countries, names of, gend., 32; as end of
motion, and place from which, 428. c.
Crasis, 603. ¢.
créber, decl., 112. a.
crédibili, w. comparative, 406. a.
créd0, position of, 599. c.
Cretic foot, 609. d; verse, 628. c.
Crime or charge, gen. of, 352.
-crum, noun ending, 240.
crux, decl., 103. g. 2.
cucumis, decl., 75. a.
ciids, ciius, 145. b, 151. h.
cuicui modi, 151. b. N.
ciiius modi, 345. a.
-culum, noun suffix, 240.
-culus, dim. ending, 243.
cum, quom (conj.), form, 544; meaning,
-; cum.. , 323. g, 549. b; se-
quence, 485. e. N.; w. clause for part.,
492, 493. 2; temporal, 545-548; causal
or concess., 549; in ind. disc., 585. 6. N.;
cum (whenever), 545. N.2, 548.
cum (prep.), 220. 6; in comp., see com-;
joined as enclitic with pronouns, 143. /,
150. d; use of, 221.9; w. plur. adj., 286.
a. N.; w. plur. verb, 317. N.; w. abl.
of manner, 412; w. abl. of accom-
paniment, 413; w. words of conten-
tion, 413. 6b; w. words of exchange,
417. b. N.
-cumque, added to relatives, 151. a and
N.; temporal particles w., 542.
-cundus, verbal adj. ending, 253 and b.
cupid, constr., 563. 6.
ciird, constr., 563; ciira (imy.), use, 449. ¢.
-cus, suffix, 232. N., 249.
Customary action, 470, 518. c.
D changed to s, 15.5; -d, old abl. ending,
decl. I, 43. n.1; decl. II, 49. e; deel. IIL
452
p. 34. ftn.; decl. TV, 92./; méd, téd, 143.
a.N.; séd, 144. B.N 2; -6 in advs. origi-
nally -6d, 214.a.N.; -d as neut. pron.
ending, 113. 6; loss ‘of -d, 398.
Dactyl, 609. 6; cyclic, id. e.
Dactylic verse, 613; hexameter, 615; ele-
giac stanza, 616; ’ other forms, 617.
-dam, adverbial ending, 21
damnas, indecl. adj., 122. b.
daps, defect., 103. h. 2.
Daring, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 456.
Dates, how expressed, 424. f, 631.
Dative defined, 35. c; in -ai, decl. I, 43.
a; in -abus, decl. I, id. e; in -is for -iis,
decl. II, 49. 7; in -ubus, decl. IV, 92. ¢;
in -i (of tinus etc.), 113.
Dative, Syntax, 360-385. Indirect ob-
ject, 361; w. transitives, 362; w. vbs.
implying motion, 363; use of dénd etc.,
364; in pass., 365; w. intransitives, 366;
w. phrases, id. a; like gen., id. 6; w
intransitives, verbs meaning favor etc.,
367; similar vbs. w. acc. id. @; vbs.
having dat. or acc., id. b, c¢; w. verbal
nouns, id. d; w. libet and licet, 368. 1;
w. comps. of satis, bene, male, id. 2;
poetic use, id. @; intrans. vbs. w. acc.
and dat., 369; w. comps. of preps. ad,
ante, etc., 370; w. passive used imper-
sonally, 372. Of Possession, 373; w.
nomen est, id. a; w. désum and absum,
id. b. Of the Agent, 374,375. Of Ref-
erence, 376, 377; of the person judging,
378; used idiomatically, 379; ethical
dat., 380. Of Separation, 381. Of Pur-
pose, 382; w. adjs. and advs., 383; w.
adjs. of fitness etc., 384, 385; gen. or
dat. w. similis, 385. c. 2.. With words
of contention (poetic), 413.6.n. Of End
of Motion, 428. h; w. ‘infin., 455.1; dat.
of gerund, 505. a.
Dativus commodi aut incommodi, 376.
dé, use, 220. b, 221. 10; in comp. w. vbs.,
267. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 381;
in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 402; w. abl.
instead of part. gen., 346. c; w. vbs. of
reminding, 351. N.; w. abl. to denote
the crime, 353. 2; w. place from which,
426. 1; position of dé, 435; dé w. abl.
of gerund, 507.
dea, decl., 43. e.
débeo, in apod., 517. c.
débui,w. pres. inf.,486.a; w. perf. inf.,id.b.
décernd, constr., 563. d and n. 2.
388. c; w. dat., id. n.3;
in apod., 517. c.
Declarative sentence, 269. a; how ex-
pressed in ind. disc., 580.
Declension defined, 22; characteristics
of, 37; general rules for, 38; termi-
nations, 39. Of Nouns, I, 40-44; Il,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
45-52; IIT, 53-87; IV, 88-94; V, 95-98;
decl. V compared with I; "98. ¢. of
Adjs., decl. I-II, 109-113; decl. III,
.114-122; of comparatives, i120; of par-
ticiples, 109, 117. b.
Decreeing, vbs. of, 563. d.
dédi, quantity of penult, 605. Exe.
Defective adjectives, 111. b, 122. ¢.
Defective comparison, 130.
Defective nouns, 99-103; of decl. IV, 94.
c; of decl. V, 98. a.
Defective verbs, 205-206.
défici0, constr., 367. a
Definite perfect, 161. 1, 473; sequence of,
485. a.
défit, 204. c.
dégener, 119. N., 121. a. 3.
Degree, adverbs of, 217. ce.
Degree of difference, abl. of, 414; dis-
tance expressed by, 425. b.
Degrees of Comparison, 123.
deinde, dénique, in enumerations, 322. d. Nn.
délectat, constr., 388. c.
délecto, w. acc., 367. a.
délector, w. abl., 431.
Deliberative subjunctive, 443, 444;
indir. questions, 575. ; inind. ‘disc. ‘ser.
délicium, -ia, -iae, 106. b.
Delivering, Vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Délos, decl., 52.
delphin, decl., 83. a.
-dem, adverbial ending, 215. 6.
Demanding, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Demonstrative adverbs, as correlatives,
323. g; equivalent to demonstr. pron.
Ww. prep., 321. a. Position, 598. b.
Demonstrative pronouns, 146; decl., id. ;
formation, id. n.1. Syntax, 296-298 :
of 1st person, 297.a; of 2d pers., id. e;
of 3d pers., id. b; supply place of pers.
prons. of 3d pers., 295. ¢; in relative
clause, 308. d. N. "Position, 598. b.
dénarius, value of, 632.
Denominative verbs, 258-262.
Dependent clauses, subjy. used in, 438. b.
Deponent verbs defined, 156. b; how
conjugated, 190; paradigms, id.; parti-
ciples, id. a; fut. inf. 9 ACS used re-
flexively, id. e; in passive sense, id. f;
list of irregular deponent verbs, 191;
defective deponents, id. a; semi-depo-
nents, 192.
Depriving, constr. w. vbs. of, 401.
Derivation of words, 227-267.
Derivative forms of nouns, 236-241; of
adjs., 242-255; of vbs., 258-263.
Derivative verbs, defined, 257.
Derivatives, quantity of, 606.
-dés, nouns in, 244.
Description, imperf. used in, 471. a.
Description implied in part., 496.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Descriptive abl., oi fiat of quality.
tdéses, decl., 121
Desiderative varbat tin -urid), 263. 4.
Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
déspérd, constr., 367. b.
déterior, compar. of, 130. a.
Determinative compounds, 265. 2.
Determining, vbs. of, constr., 563. d.
deus, decl., 49. g.
dexter, decl., 111. a; compar., 129.
di-, see dis-.
Dizresis, 611. c.
Diastole, 612. 0.
dic, imperative, 182.
dicidnis, defect., 103. e.
dicd, forms of, omitted, 319. a.
dicto, w. comp., 406. a.
-dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127.
Dido, decl., 82.
diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
diés, decl., 96; gender, 97. a; gen. form
dil, 98. N.
Difference, abl. of degree of, 414.
— comparison, 126; constr., 510.
‘eset: w. abl., 418. 6. n.1.
dignus, w. abl., 418. 5; w. relative clause,
535.
Dimeter, iambic verse, 619. c.
Diminutive endings, w. nouns and adjec-
tives, 243; verbs, 263. 3.
din-, stem-ending, 61. 2.
Diphthongs, 2 ; sound of, 8; quantity,
10. b, 603. b.
Diptotes, 103. c.
Direct object, 274, 387.
Direct question, defined, 330. 1.
Direct quotation, 578. n.
Direct reflexive, 300. b.
dis- (di-), inseparable prefix, 267. b.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 224. I. a; case
of noun after, 323
Dissimilation, 15.
dissimilis, comp.,
Distance, ace. or DL, 425. b; of time,
Distributive numerals, 136; use, 137.
Distributive pronouns, 313
diti, compar., 218. a
dives, decl., 119, ist. b.
divum (divom), for dedrum, 49. g. N.
-d6, adverbial ‘ending, 215. 6.
-d5, nouns in, from st. din-, 61. at gend., 86.
46, conj., 202; w. inf.,
doces, constr., 396 and ¢. N. 2
domi, ” locative, 427. 3.
domum, 427. 2; dom, id. 1.
domus, ’gend., 90. Exe. ; ; decl., 93; double
stem of, id.; locative form, 93. ¥.
eee w. ind. or subjy., 553 N. 1, 2 bss,
453
d6n6, double constr. of, 364.
dos, decl., 71. 6.
Double consonants, 4, 11. b.
Double questions, 334; answers to, 337.
Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 558.
Dual forms, p. 59. ftn.
Dubitative subjv., see Deliberative.
dubito an, 331. N.; ndn dubitd quin, 558. a;
non dubits, w. ‘int., id. N.2; without
neg., id. N. “4,
diic, imperative, 182.
dum, derivation, 215. 6; w. past, id. a;
w. clause for pres. and perf. part., 492,
493. 2; introducing a proviso, 528; as
adv., 552; until, w. pres. orimpf. subjv.
denoting intention or expectancy, 553;
w. pres. or fut. perf. indic. to state
future fact, id. N.2; w. rf. indic.,
554. N.; as long as, w. indic., 555 (cf.
556. a); while, w. pres. indic., 556; w. >
past indic., id. a.
dummodo, 528.
duo, decl. , 134. b.
dupii, w. vbs. of condemning, 352. a
Duration, acc. of, 423; abl. of, 494. b.
-dus, participle i in, see ‘Gerundive.
Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c.
dux, decl., 57.
E, variant of 5 as stem-vowel of decl. II,
45. cand N.; in voc., id.; abl. of neuters
in, decl. III, 76. a. 3; gend. of neuters
in, decl. III, 87; abl. in, of adjs. of two
and three terminations, 116. N., 117, 121.
a; stem-vowel, conj. Ill, 171, 174.1, 179.
c; final, quantity of, 604. e.
é, for ae (oe), 6. N.3; in Greek voc., 81. 3;
in stem of decl. Vv, 98; in gen. of decl. v,
98. d. N.; in dat., id.; in stem of conj.
Bis; 179. b; -€as adv. ending, 214. a, c.
é (preposition), see ex.
eae, old dat. fem. of is, 146. Nn. 3.
Early forms of alphabet, 1. a and N., 6.
eh: of prosody, 629
ent (eccum ete.), 146. a. N.2.
ecquis, decl., 151. f; use, 310. a.
Ecthlipsis, 612. tf.
édic6, constr., 563. d.
edo (eat), conj., 201.
Effecting, vbs. of, w. perf. part., 497.¢; -w.
ut-clause, 580. d.
efficid ut, 568.
effieri, 204. ¢.
effigiés, decl., 98. a.
Effort, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563. e.
egéns, decl., 118.
eged, constr., 356 and n.
ego, decl., 143.
ei, diphthong, 2; sound of, 8.
-eis for -is in plur. of re decl. ¥ 43. e. N.%
-€is, patronymic, 244
454
-€ius, adj. ending, 249; in prosody, 11. d,
603. f. N. 2
-€ius, names in, decl., 49. f.
éiusmodi, 146. b, 345. a.
Electra, decl., 44.
Elegiac stanza, 616.
-€lis, adj. ending, 248.
Elision, 612. e.
Ellipsis, 640.
ellum etc., 146. a. N. 2.
-ellus, diminutive ending, 243.
éluviés, decl., 98. a.
em, combined w. prons, (ellum etc.), 146.
a. N.2,
Emphasis, 597.
en- (on-, én-, 6n-), primary suffix, 234. II. 13.
Enclities, accent, 12. a; quantity, 604. a.
1; cum, 143. f, 150. b, d; -met, -te, -pte,
143. d and N.; -pse, 146. nN. 7, 8; -ce, id.
a. N.1; -que, see under that word.
End of motion, acc. of, 426. 2; w. vbs.
that also take dat., 363; dat. of, 428. ;
two or more places as end of motion,
428. 7
oy
Endings, signification of, 235-263; end-
ings of verb, 165. 2, 166. See Personal
endings, and Terminations.
English method of pronunciation, 8. N.
English words cognate with Lat., 18, 19.
enim, use, 324. h; position, 324. j, 599. b.
~€nsimus (or -ésimus), numeral adj. end-
ing, 133. n.1.
-énsis, gentile ending, 249.
Enumeration, primum. . . deinde, 322. d. Nn.
-tnus, adj. ending, 249.
Envy, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
ed, used w. supine in -um, 428. 7, 509. n. 1.
ed, used w. quo, 414. a; w. compar., id. ;
approaching abl. of cause, id. N.
e6 consilié ut, 531. 1. nN. 1.
Epicene nouns, 34. N.
Epistolary tenses, 479.
epitomé, decl., 44.
epulum, plur. -ae, 106. b.
equester, decl., 115. a.
equidem, 322. f. N.
er- for es-, primary suffix, 234. II. 17.
er-, stem-ending, 63. Exc. 2.
-er, nom. ending, decl. II, 45-47; decl.
III, 61. 4, 65. a; gend., 85; -er, adjs. in,
111, 112, 115; compar. of these, 125.
erga, w. acc. after adjs., 385. b.
ergo, use, 324.7; w. gen., 359. 0.
-erim, -€r0, as tense-ending, 169. c, d.
-ernus, adj. ending, 250.
ero-, noun stems in, decl. II, 50; &ro-, adj.
stems in, 111. a. N.
ks, root of esse, 15. 4; 170. b. N.
es- (0s-), primary suffix, 234. II. 17.
-és,in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 4;
gend. of nouns in, 85.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
-és, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. II, 52. a,
gen. ending, decl. V, 98. n.
-€s, list of nouns in, p. 30. ftn. 2; gend.,
86; formation, 238. a.
esse, conj., 170; forms of, in other lan-
guages, id. b. N.; compounds of, 198;
case after, 284; dat. of poss. w., 373;
future part. w. (first periph. conj.),
498. a,b; position of forms of, 598. ¢, j.
est, united with other words, 13. N.; est
qui etc., 535. a; est cum, 535. a. N.3; est
ut, 569. 3.
Esteeming, vbs. of, constr., 393.
-ester (-estris), adj. ending, 250; a noun-
ending, 254. 11.
éstur, éssétur, pass. forms of ed6, 201. a.
et, use, 324. a; et... et, 323. e; et re-
peated or omitted, 323. c.
et, -que, or atque translated but, 324. d.n.
etenim, use, 324. h, k.
Ethical dative, 380.
etiam, use, 322. a; in answers, 336. a. 1.
etiam si, concessive, 527. c.
etsi, use, 527. c.
-€tum, noun ending, 254. 8.
-eus, Greek names in, 52. e; -eus, patro-
nymic ending, 244; adj. ending, 247,
249, 254. 10.
évenit ut, 568. ftn. 2.
ex (€), 220.6; use, 221.11; in compounds,
267. a, 402; abl. w., instead of part.
gen., 346. ¢: in vbs. w. dat., 381; w.
prons. etc., 403. a. N.1; to express place
from which, 426. 1; expressing posi-
tion, 429. b; after its noun, 435; w. abl
of gerund, 507.
excello, w. dat., 368. 3.
Exchanging, vbs. of, 417. b.
Exclamation, form of, 333. N.; nom. in,
339. a; ace. in, 397. d; w. infin., 462.
Exclamatory questions, 462. a.
Exclamatory sentences, 269. ¢; nom. in,
339. a@; gen. in, 359. a; acc. in, 397. d.
Existence, general expressions of, 535. a.
exléx, defect., 122. c.
Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. ind.
dise., 580. ¢; w. complem. inf., id. N.
expénsum, 496. Nn. 4.
exsili6, w. abl., 404. a.
exspés, defect., 122. c.
exsult0, w. abl., 404. a.
exteri, use, 130. b.
exterior, 130. b.
extrémus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2.
exud, constr., 364.
F, original sound of, 1. b. n.
faber, decl., 112. a.
fac, imy., 182, 204; fac (ut), w. subjv.,
449. c; fac né, in prohibition, 450. n. 2,
faciés, decl., 98. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
facilis, compar., 126; w. supine, 510. n.2.
facid, accent of comps. of, 12. a. Exc.;
forms of, omitted, 319. a; w. abl., 403.
c; Ww. names bee "authors, 497. d. N.}
facere ut, 568. n.1.
Factitive acc., 386; verbs, 273. N.1.
-factd, in com pounds, 266 266. a.
faenebris, Bak: 115. n. 1.
faex, decl., 103. g. 2.
fallit, w. ace., 388. ¢.
faisus, compar., 131. a.
famés, abl. of, 76. b. N.1, 98. d.
familiaris, decl., 76. b. 2.
familias, in pater familias etc., 43. b.
fas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -i, 510.
faux, decl., 101. n.1, 103. f. 4.
Favor, vbs. of, w. dat, 367.
fax, decl., 103. g. 2
Fearing, vbs. of, Ww: inf., 456; w. né, né
non, ut, 564
febris, seal, 7 , 1. b, 76. b. 1.
Feelin = nouns of, w. gen., 348; imper-
sonal vbs. of, 208. b, 354. b; animi w.
' vbs. and adjs. of, 358; gen. w. vbs.
of, 354; acc. w. vbs. of, 388. @; quod-
clause w. vbs. of, 572. b.
Feet in Prosody, 608-610.
félix, compar., 124.
Feminine, rule oo gend., 32.
femur, decl.,1
-fer, comps. ang 3; decl., 111. a.
fer, ‘imperative, 182.
fero, conj., 200; acceptum niet ferre,
496. N. a, comps. of, 200. a
ferre, ferrem, for tferse ete., p. 110. ftn. 3.
Festivals, plural names of, 101.2; in-alia,
254. 7.
-ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. a.
fidés, "decl. -, 96.
fido (cénfid5), semi-deponent, 192; w. dat.,
3675 WwW. abl., 431.
fidus, ‘compar., 131. a.
fieri, ‘constr. Ww. abl., 403. ¢.
Fifth Declension, 95-97.
Figura etymologica, 598. m.
filia, decl., 43. e; filius, voc., 49. ¢.
Filling, words of, Ww. abl., 409. a; w. gen.,
d
Final Clauses, defined, 279. d; constr. of,
530-532; as subst. clauses, 563.
Final conjunctions, 223. b. 6, 224. IT. oa
Final syllables, rules of quantity, 604 c
vowels, id. a-h.
finis, decl., 76. b.
Finite verb, defined, 154. N.; subj. of,
339.
fid, conj., 204; in compounds, id. b; de-
fective compounds of, id. c; quantity
of i in, 603. a. 3.
First Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres.
stem, how formed, 176. a; formation,
455
179. a, 259; paradigms, 184; vbs. of,
209; vbs. of, how formed, 259.
First Declension, 40-42.
fisus, as pres. part., 491.
fit ut, 368. ftn. 2, 569. 2.
Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384, 385. a.
flagitd, constr.,
flocci, gen. of value, 417. a.
For, ‘when expressed by pro, 379. n.
fords, 103. c. 4, 215. 3.
fore, ‘170. a; perf. part. w., 164. c. N.; fore
ut, 569. a.
forem, 170. a.
forés, ’plur. only, 101.4, 103. ¢. 4.
Forgetting, vbs. of, 350; w. inf., 456.
foris (locative), 103. ¢. 4, 215. 4, "427. a.
Formation of words, 297-267.
Forms of the verb, 180 ff.
fors, forte, 103. ¢. 1.
forsan, 447. b. N.
forsitan (fors sit an), 216. N.; w. subjv.,
447. a.
fortasse, 447. b.
Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 173;
pres. stem, how formed, 176. a, 179. d;
paradigm, 187; list of vbs., 212; vbs.,
how formed,
Fourth Declension, 88-94.
Fractional expressions, 135. e, 637.
fraus, decl., 71. 6.
Freedom, adjs. of, w. abl., 402. a; vbs.
of, 401.
French, derivations through, 19. n. 2.
Frequentative verbs, 263. 2.
frétus, w. abl., 431. a.
Fricatives, 4. 5.
friigi, defect. noun, 103. f. 1; as adj., 122.
b; compar., 129; constr., 382. 1.N
fruor, fungor, Ww. abl., 410; W. ace., a. ‘a.
; gerundive, 503. N.
sink. W. acc., 388. c.
ful, derivation of, 170. b. N.
Fulness, adjs. of, 349. a.
fiinebris, decl., 115. ne},
fungor, see fruor.
Future conditions, 516; in ind. disc.,
589. a.
Future tense, use, 472; of inf. ‘pass.,
how formed, 203. a; of i imv., 449; ind.
for imv., id. b; in "indirect "questions,
575.
Future Infinitive, how formed, 164. 3.
b, c, 193. N.; expressed with fore or
futirum esse, ” 569. a; (rarely) in con-
trary to fact conditions in ind. dise.,
589. b. N
Future Participle, use, 158. b, 489, 498,
517. d; fut. pass. part.,
Future Perfect tense, suffix of, 169. ¢;
use of, 478; rice? in subjv., 434.
63 in conditions, 5 16. ¢.
456
futiirum esse ut, see fore ut; futiirum fuisse
ut, 589. 6. 3 and N. 2.
Futurum in praeterité, 511. ftn. 1.
G (the character), 1. a and N.
Games, plur. names of, 101. 2.
gaudeo, conj., 192; w. abl., 431; w. quod
or ind. disc., 572. b.
Gems, gend. of, 32 and b, 48. Fue.
Gender, kinds of, 30; general rules for,
31-34; common, epicene, 34; change
of gend., p. 18. ftn.; nouns, decl. I,
gend., 42; decl. II, 48; nouns, decl. III,
gend. according to endings, 84-87; of
nouns, decl. IV, 90, 91; decl. V, 97;
Syntax: agreement in gend., 280; of
appositives, 282. c; of adjs., 286; adjs.
w. nouns of different genders, 287 (cf.
289. c); of rel., 306. bd.
General conditions, defined, 513.2; constr.
of, 518; relatives in, 520.
General truths after past tense (in
sequence of tenses), 485. d; in pres.,
465; in general condition, 518. a.
GENITIVE, defined, 35. 6; terminations
of, 37; plur. in -um, 38. /; gen. in -ai
and -as, decl. I, 43. a, b; in -i for -ii,
decl. II, 49. b; in-i of proper nouns of
decl. III, 52. a; gen. plur. in -um (-om),
for -Grum, 49. d; -um for -ium, decl. III,
78; -0s for -is, 81. 1 Yer plur. in -um,
92. 6; in -i or -6 for -€1, decl. V, 98. N.;
gen. plur. wanting, 103. g. 2; of adjs. in
-ius, 113; gen. plur. in-ium or-um, 121. 6.
GENITIVE, Syntax, 342-356; general use,
342. Subjective gen., 343. N.1. Posses-
sive gen., 343; in app. W. poss. pron.,
302.e; compared w. dat., 373. N.; gen.
in predicate, 343. b, c; gen. of adj.
for neut. nom., 343. c. N.1; gen. of sub-
stance or material, 344; for app., 343.
d; gen. of quality, 345. Partitive, 346.
Objective, 347 ff.; w. adjs., 349, 385.
c; w. vbs. of memory, 350; charge
and penalty, 352; of feeling, 354; w.
im -, miseret ete., 354. b; w. réfert
and interest, 355; of plenty and want,
356; of exclamation, 359. a; w. potior,
357. a; w. other vbs., id. b; w. eged and
indiged, 356. N.; gen. for abl., id.; gen.
replaced by dat., 366. b; of value, 417;
gen. of gerundive, 504.
genius, voc. of, 49. c.
Géns, or family, names, 108.
Gentile adjectives, 244.
gentilis, 76. a. 2.
geni, decl., 89; gend., 91.
genus, decl., 64.
-ger, compounds of, 50; decl., 111. a.
Gerund, form, 155. b; meaning, 159. a;
gerundive used instead, 503. Syntax,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
502-507 3 gen. of, 504; w. direct obj.,
id. a; pred. use, purpose, id. a. n.1; w.
obj. gen., id. c; dat. of, 505; in law
phrases etc., id. b; acc. of, 506 and n.1;
abl. of, 507; gerund codrdinated w.
nominal constr. and in app., 503. a.
N.?; w. direct obj., 503. a. N. i,
Gerundive, meaning and form, 155. a and
ftn. 3, 158. d; in -endus or -undus, p. 89.
ftn. 1; of dep. vb., 190. d; use as part.
or adj., 500; of itor, id. 3; to denote
purposeaftercertain vbs.,id.4; used for
gerund, 503. Gerundive constructions
in cases, gen., 504; dat., 505; acc., 506;
iad le Impersonal w. esse, w. acc.,
gibber, decl., 111. a.
gin-, stem-ending, 61. 2.
Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
glaber, decl., 112. a.
glaciés, decl., 98. a.
glis, decl., 71. 6.
glorior, w. abl., 431.
Glyconic verse, 623. 1, 624, 625. 1, 12.
Gnomic perfect, 475.
-gd, nouns in, from stem gin-, 61. 2;
gend., 86.
gracilis, decl., 122. a; compar. 126.
Grammar, how developed, 268.
Grammatical gender, 30. b.
gratia, w. gen., 359. b, 404.c; w. gen. of
gerund, 533.
gratificor, w. dat., 368. 3.
gratulor, w. dat., id.
Greek accusative (synecdochical), 397. b.
Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 13,
14, 19, 26, 55, 58, 76, 80, 83, 126, 142,
143, 150, 153. :
Greek nouns, decl. I, 44; decl. II, 52;
decl. III, 81, 82, 83.
Greek proper names, quantity of, 603. 4.
Groups of words, conjunctions w., 323. c.
gris, decl., 79. a.
Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
H (breathing), 4; omitted in spelling,
6. d. N.2; in prosody, 603. a, 612. e.
habeo, w. infinitive, 460. a; w. perfect
participle, 497. 6; future imperative
habéto in sense of consider, 449. a.
habilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn.
hactenus, 221. 26. n.1.
Hadria, gen., 42. Exc.
haec for hae, 146. n. 2.
haered, w. abl., 368. 3. N.
Happening, vbs. of, constr., 569. 2.
Have, perf. w., origin, 497. b. ftn.
havé (avé), defective verb, 206. g.
Having, vbs. of, w. gerund., 500. 4.
hebes, decl., 86. a; compar., 124.
Help, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Hemiolic measures, 609. d@.
Heroic verse, 615.
héros, decl.,
Hesitation, clauses of, w. quin, 558, 559;
vbs. of, constr. -» 456.
Heteroclite nouns, 105; adjs., 122. a.
Heterogeneous nouns, 106.
Hexameter verse, 615.
Hiatus, 612. g
Hibér, decl., 50
hibus, 146. N. a. *
hic, 146, n.1; decl., 146; use, 297. a, e, f;
uantity, 604. as Exe.
Hidden quantity, 11. f and n.
hiemps (for hiems), 15. 11.
hilaris (-us), 122. a.
Himself (ipse, sé), 298. c. N. 2,
Hindering, vbs. of, with né or quominus,
or inf., 558. b and N.
Hindrance, vbs. of, w. quoéminus, 558. 0;
a negatives, followed by quin, 558,
Historical infinitive, 463 ; takes secondary
sequence, 485. f.
Historical perfect, 161. 2, 473.
Historical present, 469; ‘followed by pri-
mary or secondary tenses, 485. e€.
’ hodié, loc. form, 98. b, 215. De
honor (Os), decl. , 62. N.2,
Hoping, verbs of, with ind. disc., 580. ¢;
w. complem. inf. -, id. N.
Horace, metres of, 626.
horizon, decl., 83. d.
Hortatory subjunctive, 439; in conces-
sion, 440; in proviso, 528; in obligation,
439. b; w. force of protasis, 521. b.
hortor, constr., 563.
hospes, decl., 121. a. 4.
hospita (fem. of hospes), 121. e.
héiusmodi, 146. b.
humi, 49. a; locative use of, 427. a.
humilis, compar., 126.
Hundreds, how declined, 134. ¢.
Hypotaxis, 268.
I, as vowel and as cons., 1, 10; i as tran-
sient sound between cons. i and a pre-
ceding vowel, 6. ¢ ee Ys e).
i-, primary suffix, 234. I
i, for € in conj. I, 179. B. ye ‘for ¥i in conj.
ef, 3d;\c..1; lost in vbs. in -i6 of conj.
i, id. and e; inserted in vb. stem, 176.
i a Geonke voc., 82.
, (single) in gen. of nouns in -ius (-ium),
"49. b; in gen. of nouns in -€s, 52. a; in
abl. of decl. III, 76; in loc. of decl. ill,
p. 34. ftn.1; in gen., decl. IV, 92.a; in
n., dat., decl. V, 98. d. N.; in dat. of
us ete., 113; in pres. pass. inf. » D- 286.
ftn. 1; in perfect, 163. ftn. 3.
457
i-stems, decl. III, 66-78; confused, 73;
signs of, 74; in adj., 117; cases retain-
ing -i, ef. 74, 76, 114, "116. 'N: i-stems in
vbs., 179. d
-ia, ending be abstract nouns, 241.
“ia nom. and ace. plur. decl. ITI, 74.6; of
adjs., 116, 117.
-ia for -iés, decl. V, 98: ¢.
iacid, comps. of, 6. d, 603. f. N.8.
iam, ’ derivation, 215. 6; use, 322. b; w.
impf., 471. ¢. N.
Iambie verse, 613; trimeter, 618; other
forms, 619.
Iambus, 609. a. 2.
iamdit, w. pres., 466; w. impf., 471. b.
iamdidum, W. pres., 466 ; As impf. 471. 6;
Ww. imperative, 466. N.
-Ibam for -iébam, conj. iv. 183. 1.
-ib0 for -iam, 183. 1.
Ibus, 146. n. 3,
icius, 247.
Ictus, 608. N., 611. a.
-icus, 249,
id-, stem-ending, 83. 0.
id genus, 397. a.
id quod, 307. d.
id temporis, 346. 3, 397. a.
idcircd, as correl., "304. 7; w. final clause,
531. 1. N.1.
idem, decl., 146; derivation, 146. n.9; w.
dat., 384. N. 1: w. atque or rel., id. N. te
used emphatically, 298. a; equiy.
adv., id. b.
Ides (13th or 15th of month), how reck-
oned, 631. 0.
-idés (idés), i in patronymics, 244.
iddneus, compar., ei w. dat. of gerund
etc., 505. a. ftn. 2
iddneus qui, 535. f.
-idus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
Idis, "decl. IV, gender, 90. Exc. (See Ides.)
-ie, in voc. of ’adjs. in -ius, 110. a.
iecur, decl., forms from different stems,
79. c, 105. g.
iéns (part. of ed), decl., 119.
-ier in inf. pass., 183. 4.
-iés, noun ending, 241; in decl. V=-ia,
decl. I, 98. c. beaten
igitur, meaning, 324.7; position, id. 7.
ignis, ‘decl., 76. 6.1
-ii (or -i), in gen., po Il, 49. 6 and ftn.;
of adjs., 110
ii, iis, for i, is, even is, 146.
-ile, noun ending, 254 . 6.
-ilis, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252.
lis; nominal adj. ending, 248.
Illative conjunctions, 223. a. 4, 224. I. d.
ille, forms, 146. Nn. 4, ®; decl.,- 146; alte
297. b,e; ‘combined w. "ce, 146. a. N.1,
illic, decl., 146
-illd, vbs. ending ‘in, 263. 3.
458
illus, diminutive ending, 243.
illistris, decl., 115. n.1.
-im, acc. ending, decl. III, 73-76.
-im, in pres. subjv., 183. 2.
imber, decl., 66, 67, 76. 0.
imméne quantum, 575. d.
immé, how used, 329.
Imperative mood, 154. b; how used, 157.
c; terminations, 163. b, 179. e; dic, duc,
fac, fer, 182; some vbs. used chiefly in,
206. g; w. iam diidum, 466. N.2; in
commands, 448; 3d pers., 448. a; forms
in ind. disc., 588; fut., 449 and a;
various periphrases for imy., 449, ¢;
imperative as protasis, 521. b.
Imperative Sentence, 269. d.
Imperfect tense, defined, 160. a, 471; use,
470; in descriptions, id. a; w. iam dit
etc., id. b; inceptive and conative, id. c;
w. iam, id. n.; of surprise, id. d; in
dialogue, id. e;=could, etc., id. f;
epistolary, 479 and N.; represented by
perf. subjv., 485. b. 3; imperf. subjv.,
sequence, id. g, h, 584. a and nN.
impero, constr., 563.
Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin.
clause, 566. b, 582 and a.
Impersonal verbs, synopsis of, 207 ; classi-
ed, 208; passive of intransitives, id.
d, 372; impersonals, miseret etc., w.
gen., 354, b; libet, licet, w. dat., 368. 1;
acc. w. decet etc., 388. c.
impertio, constr., 364.
impetro, constr., 563, 568. ftn. 2.
impetus, defect., 103. d.
impleo, constr., 409. a. N.
implico, constr., 364.
impono, constr., 430.
imus, 130. a. N. 2.
in-, neg. prefix, 267. d. 1.
in-, stem-ending, 61. 2; in-, 83. a.
in, prep., use, 220. c, 221.12; comp. w.
vbs., 267.a; in, w. acc. or abl., 259. e
(cf. 480); w. acc., penalty, 353.2. N.;
vbs. comp. with, w. dat., 370; in w. acc.,
w. adjs., 385.6; in citations, 428. d. N.?;
place where, 426. 3; in idioms of time,
424. e; w. abl. of gerund, 507.
Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 263. 1.
Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 384, 385. b.
inclutus, compar., 131. a.
Incomplete action, tenses of. See Con-
tinued action.
Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 33; list
of, 103. a; adjectives, 122. b.
Indefinite antecedent, relative with, w.
subjv., 535. a and n. 2.
Indefinite pronouns, decl., 148-151. Syn-
tax, 309-315; indefinite relative may
ns Ss conditional clause, 512. n.,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Indefinite subject omitted, 318. 6; use of
2d person for, 439. a; in general con-
ditions, 518. a; licet clarum fieri, 455. n.
Indefinite value, 417 and a.
Indicative mood, 154. b; how used, 157. a,
437; for Eng. subjv., id. @; in apod. of
conditions contrary to fact, 517. 6, ¢,
522. a; in causal clauses, 540; in clause
with quod, 572; in deliberative ques-
tions, 444. a. N.
indiged, w. gen., 356. N.
indignus, w. abl., 418. 6; w. quiandsubjv.,
(585
A
InpDIRECT DiscouRsE, origin etc., 577;
list of verbs that take ind. disc., 579,
ftn.; direct and indir. quotation, 578.
Moods in ind. disc., 580; verb of say-
ing implied, id. a. Subj. acc., 580.
Subord. clause when explanatory, 583;
clauses w. rel. which is equivalent to
demonstr., id. 6. Tenses of inf. in ind.
disc., 584; tenses of subjv., 585; subjv.
depending on perf. inf., id. @; pres.
and perf. after secondary tense (reprae-
sentatio), id. b. Conditional sentences
in ind. disc., 589; questions, 586; delib-
erative subjv., 587; commands, 588;
prohibition, id. n. 2. Informal ind.
disc., 591.1, 592.
Indirect object, 274, 361, 362, 366, 367.
Indirect Questions, defined, 330, 331; Syn-
tax, 331. N., 332. 6. N., 573-575; fut.
tense in, 575. a; deliberative subjv. in,
id. 6; indic. in (early Lat.), id. ¢; num
in, 332. Db. N.
Indirect quotation, 578.
Indirect reflexive, 300. 2 and b.
Indo-European, 14, 18, 19.
indiico, w. names of authors, 497. d. N.
indud, double constr. of, 364.
ined, constr., 370. b.
ineptus, constr., 505. a. ftn.
inermis or -us, 122. a.
infera, defect., 111. 0, cf. p. 56. ftn. 2;
compar., 130. b.
inferi, meaning in plur., 130. 0.
inferior, comparison, 130. b.
Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 452;
Ww. pass. vbs., 582 and a. See also In-
direct Discourse. Cf. also 459.
INFINITIVE Moon, 154. 6 and ftn.; tenses
of, 164.3. b, 486; how used, 157. d; pass.
in -ier, 183. 4; fut. inf. of deponents,
190. c; subject in ace., 397. e.
INFINITIVE Moon, Syntax, 451-463; used
as subject, 452; complementary inf.,
456; vbs. having subjv. or inf., 457 (cf.
563); inf. for obj. clause, 563. N.; w.
subject acc., 459; case of predicate
noun, 581 and n.2; inf. of purpose, 460;
w. adjs., in poetry, 461; of result, id. a;
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
as pure noun, id. 6; in exclamations,
462 (sequence, 482. N.). Historical inf.,
463. Tenses of inf., 486; perf. instead
of pres., id. d, e; fore ut etc., for fut.
inf., 569. a. Inf. in ind. disc., 579;
tenses, 584.
Infinitive used as noun, gender, 33;
en., 343. c. (See also Infinitive Mood,
yntaz. )
infitias, defect., 103. b. 6; use, 428. 7.
Inflection, defined, 21; terminations of
id. b; how modified, 28; of decl. and
conj.,
Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563.
Informal Indirect Discourse, 591, 592.
infra, use, 220. a, 221. 13.
ingéns, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b.
iniuria, as abl.‘of manner, 412. b.
iniussii, defect., 94. c.
inops, decl., 121. a. 3, 0.1.
inquam, inquit, 206. b; position of, 599. c.
Inseparable particles, 267. b.
Insertion of consonants (Pp in simpsi),
15. 11, 639.
insidiae, dat. w., 367. d.
inspergo, constr., 364.
instar, indecl., 103. a; w. gen., 359. b.
insto, constr., 563.
Instrument, abl. of, 409.
Instrumental case, 35. N. (cf. 338, 398);
as adv., 215. 4; source of several abl.
constructions,
insulam, ad, 428. a.
integer, "decl., 112. a
Integral part, en ts of, 591, 593.
integrum est ut, 568.
Intensive pronoun, 146. n.7, 8, 298. cf.
Intensive vbs., 263. 2 and b.
inter, use, 220. a, 221. ae in comp., 267. a;
vbs. comp. w., 370; position, 435 ; inter sé
(reciprocal), 145. c, 301. f; inter sicdrids,
353. 2; inter, w. gerund, 506 and n. 1,
intercliid6, constr., 364 and N. 2.
interdicé, constr., 364. n.1.
interest, " constr., ” 355 ; w. ad, id. b; how
to express degree of interest, id. N.2.
interior, compar., 130.
tnterjociens, defined, “o0; list, 226; w.
at
Interlocked order of words, 598. h.
oe clauses, Syntax of, 591-
=e advs., use, 333; position,
Interrogative particles, list of, 217. d;
use, 331-333.
i ee pronouns, 148-151; use,
333; position, 598. b.
Interrogative sentences, 269. b; forms of,
330-336.
intra (interior), 130. a; derivation, 215. 4.
459
Intransitive verbs, 273. 2, ety ; used
gages nally. in pass., 208. d; por Ww.
transitively, w. acc. and
a "oot 388. @.N.); W. cognate ac>.,
390; "having passive sense, w. ab, 405. a.
-inus, ‘adj. ending, 249.
initilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a.
invictus, compar., 131. a.
invitus, ‘com aT. y 131. a
-i6, noun en ing, 238. y gend., 86.
-i0, vbs. in, conj. III, ‘176. b. 2; forms
of, 179. c, e; paradigm, 188; conj. IV,
179. d; derivation, 262.
iocus, plur, in -i or -a, 106. b.
Ionic measure, 609. ¢; verse, 626. 16.
ip-, stem-ending, . a.
ipse, formation, 146. N.7,8; decl., 146; use,
298. c; used instead of reflexive, 300. b.
iri, in fut. inf. pass., 203. a.
Ironical statement not different in form
from question, 332. a. N.
Irrational measures, 609. e, 623. N.
-is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf., 181. 6. n.?.
is, decl., 146; use, 152, 297. d. e; used
em hatically, ae a; used instead of
reflexive, 300.
-is, nom. ae gend., 86;
nymic,
-is, for -ils in decl. I, 43. e. N.2; nom. and
acc. plur., decl. Ill, 77 (cf. 73); of a a é
117, 121. c; Greek nom. ending, 83
-is, nouns in, see it-.
Islands, names of, loc. use, 427. 3, 428. e;
from which, 427. 1; to which, id. 2.
-isse, -issem, vb. ending, see 181. 0.
-iss6, vbs. ending in, . 6.
iste, ’shortened to ste, 146. N. 5; decl., 146;
use, 297. c.
istic, decl., 146. a.
It, as sign ‘of Impersonals, 207. ftn.
it-as stem-ending, 58.6; decl., 78,121. a.4.
ita, correl. with ut, 323. gi ‘in answers,
336. a; ita ut, 537. 2. N.
itaque, accent, 12. a; compared with
ergo, 324. 7; used with ergo, id. k; posi-
tion of, 599. b.
iter, stem of, 79. c.
Iterative subj unctive, 518. ¢.
Iterative verbs (-t6, -it6, “+0), 263. 2.
-itd, vbs. in, ys
-itus, adj. ending, 246.
iubar, decl., 76. a. 3.
iubed, w. acc., 367. a; w. inf., 563. a; in
-is, patro-
, 566. ¢
iucundus, pr Re 510. n. 2.
itigerum, a "103. d. 8; decl., 105. 0;
measure,
-ium, ie plu, decl. III, 74. a; of adjs.
114. a,1 7, 121. b.
-ium, tess os , 241. b.
iungo, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. n., 413. N.
460
Iuppiter, stem and decl., 79 and 6; plural,
100. a; derivation, 266.
-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc. of, 110. a; forma-
tion of adjs. in, 247, 202 N.
itis (broth), decl., 103. g. 1
-lus, gen. ng Fa ending, 113; quantity, id.
c, 603. xe.
fanel, defect., oA, ¢, 103. b. 5.
iiistd, Ww. compar. -» 406. a.
iuvat, w. acc., 388. ¢
iuvenis, decl., 62. N. 8, 78.1; masce. adj.,
122. d ; compar., 131. ¢.
iuvo, w. acc., 367. a
iixta, position, 435.
-iv-, in perf., 211. d.
-ivus, verbal adj. ending, 251. N.
J (the character), 5 n.1; Eng. sound, id.
Julian Calendar, 630, 631. e.
K, supplanted by C, 1. a. N.
kalendae, 631. a.
Kindred forms, Latin and English, 18, 19.
Kindred signification, acc. of, 390.
Knowing, vbs. of, w. acc. and inf. , 459.
Knowl ge, adjs. "of, w. gen., 349. ‘a.
ko-(ka-), primary suffix, 934. IL. 12.
L, nouns in -l, gend., 87; adj. stems in
1-, 117. a.
Labials, 4. 2; gigs decl. III, 56 and a.
laboro, w. abl.,
a ap decl., 89; iat oad abl. plur. in-ubus,
laedo, Ww. acc., 367. a.
laetor, laetus, w. abl., 431.
lampas, decl., 82.
lated, w. acc., 396. c.
latet, w. acc., 388. ¢. N.1.
latifundium, 265. 2.
latus, part., derivation, 200. ftn. 2.
Learning, vbs. of, w. inf., 456.
Length, expressed by gen., 345. b.
-léns, -lentus, adj. endings, 245.
1e6, decl., 62.
Letters, Classification of, 1-5.
levis, decl., 116; compar., 124.
leviter, com ar., 218.
liber, adj., ecl., 50, 111. a.
Liber, decl., 50.
liberi, noun, 50, 101. 3.
libet, impers., 208. ¢. N.; w. dat., 368. 1.
licet, impers., synopsis, "207 ; use, 208. ec.
Ne; W w. dat., 1; w. predicate dat.,
455. 1; w. subjv., meaning although,
527. b; licet eam, licet mé ire, licet mihi
ire, 565 and N. 2.
Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen.,
Limiting word, meaning of, 276. b.
Linguals, 4. 3; stems in, decl. III, 58. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
linter, decl., 66.
Liquids, 3, 4; stems in, decl.
-lis, adjs. in, compar., 126.
Litotes, 326. ¢.
-lium, noun ending, 241. oe
11-, ag stem ending, 62. n. 1.
lo- (1a-), eT. suffix, 234. II. 10.
Locative abl., 426. 3; idiomatic use,
429. 3; adverbial forms, 215. 5.
LocaTrIvE, defined, 35. h, p. 34. ftn. (ef.
360) ; in abl., 398, 421; of decl. I, 43.¢;
decl. II, 49.a; decl. III, 80; decl. IV
(domi), 93. n.1; decl. V, 98.6; as adv.,
215. 5; w. abl. in apposition, 282. d;
relative adv. used to refer to, 308. g;
animi, 358; loc. used to express where,
426.3; forms (domi etc.), 427. a.
locd, abl. without prep., 429. 1.
loco, vb., constr., 430.
locum capere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
locus, plur. -i or -a, 106. x
Logacedic Verse, 623-625.
Long and Short, see Quantity.
longius, without quam, 407. c.
lidicer, decl., 112. a.
lués, defect., 103. d. 1.
lux, decl., 103. g. 2.
61-64.
M, final, elision of, a d.n.,f; inserted
in verb root, 176. c.
-m, sign of ace., 338 ; pone y in inscrip-
tions, 46. N.
macer, decl., ind. a.
macte virtiite, use and constr., 340. ¢
and N.
magis, as sign of compar., 128; comps.
of, w. quam, 434
magni, gen. of value, 417.
magnus, comparison, 129,
maiestatis, w. words of accusing etc.,
352. a.
Main clause, defined, 278. b.
maior nati, 131. c.
maiorés, signification of, 101.3 (cf. 102. 2),
291. c. N.3,
Making, vbs. of, constr., 393.
male, compar., ’218; compounds of, w.
dat., 368. 2.
malo, conj., 199.
malus, compar., 129.
mando, constr., 563.
mane, defect. noun, 76. N.1, 103. 6. 5.
maneo, w. abl., 431.
Manner, advs. of, 217.c; abl. of, 412 and
b; hard to distinguish from abl. of speci-
fication, 418.a@. N; manner implied in
participle, 496.
mansuétus, 266. c.
manus, decl., 89; gend., 90. Hae.
mare, decl., 76. a. 3, 78.
mari, loc., 427. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
. mas, decl., 71. 6.
Masculine, rule for gender, 31.
Masculine adjs., 122. d.
Masculine ezesura, 615. ¢. N.
Material, adjectives denoting, 247; gen.
of, 344; abl. of, 403 and b, ¢, d.
maximé, as sign of superl., 128.
May, how expressed in Latin, 157. b.
mé dius fidius, 397. d. N. 2.
Means, nouns denoting, 239; abl. of, 408,
409; participle implying means, 496
Measure, gen. of, 345. b (cf. 425. a).
Measures in Prosody, 608-610; names of,
609; contracted or resolved, 610.
Measures of value, 632-635; of length,
636; of weight, 637; of capacity, 638.
medeor, w. dat. or acc., 367. 0.
mediocris, decl., 115. a. n.1.
Meditative verbs, 263. 2. b.
medius (middle part of), 293.
melior, decl., 120.
melius est, w. infin. 486. f.
memini, conj., 205; in pres. sense, id. },
476; imperative of, 449. a; memini w.
ace. or gen., 350. a, b; w. pres. inf.,
584. a and N.
memor, decl., 121. a. 3.
Memory, adjs. of, constr., 349. a; vbs. of,
constr., 350.
men-, primary suffix, 254. II. 14.
-men, -mentum, noun endings, 239.
ménsis, decl., 78. 2.
meridiés, gend., 97.
-met (enclitic), 143. d.
Metathesis, 640 (cf. 177. a. N.).
Metre, see Prosody. :
metud, w. dat. or acc., 367. c; w. subjv.,
564
meus, yor. mi, 110. a. N.; syntax of,
. a, 343. a.
Middle voice, 397. c, 410. N.
Mile, 636.
miles, decl., 57.
Military expressions, dat. in, 382. 2; abl.
of means instead of agent, 405. b. n.1;
abl. of accomp. without cum, 413. a.
militiae (locative), 427. a.
mille (milia), decl. and constr., 134. d.
-mini, as personal ending, p. 76. ftn. 1.
minimé, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. N.?;
w. neg. force, 392. a; in answer (0), 336.
2.
a. 2.
ministré, w. infin., 460. a.
minor nati, 131. c.
minGris, gen. of value, 417 and ec.
minorés, signification, 291. c.N.%.
-minus,\-mnus, verbal adjective endings,
253. ¢. :
minus, compar., 218. a; use, 291. ¢. N.?;
WwW. si and qué,= not, 329. a; constr.
without quam, 407. c.
461
miror si, 572. b. N.
mirum quam (quantum), w.
575. d.
mis, tis, 143. a. N.
misced, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. N., 413. a. N.
miser, decl., 111; compar., 125.
miseré, compar., 218. .
misereor, w. gen., 354. a.
miserésco, w. gen., 354. a.
miseret, 208. 6; w. gen. and acc., 354. b;
other constr., id. N.
miseror, w. acc., 354. a. N.
Mixed i-stems, 70-72.
-mnus, see ~minus.,
mo- (ma-), primary suffix, 234. II. 7.
Modesty, subjunctive of, 447. 1.
Modification of subj. or pred., 276.
Modifiers, position of, 596-599; of nega-
tive, 599. a.
_ (modo né) with subjy. of proviso,
modo . . . modo, 323. f.
modo as abl. of manner, 412. b.
molaris, decl., 76. a. 2.
mvoned, conj., 185; constr., 351, 390. d. n.1.
-monium, -monia, noun endings, 239.
V.onoptotes, 103. b.
Monosyllables, quantity, 604. a-c.
Months, gend. of names of, 31 and n.;
decl. of names of in -ber, 115. a; names
of, 630; divisions of in Roman Calen-
dar, 631
indicative,
_ Moods, names and uses of, 154, 157; note
on origin and nature of, 436; syntax
of, 264-275, 437-463.
Moods in temporal clauses, how distin-
guished, 545, 546 and notes. .
Mora, in Prosody, 608. a.
morigerus, decl., 111. a. Nn.
- mos est ut, 568.
Mother, name of, w. prep., 403. a. nN. 1.
Motion, how expressed, 363, 381. a, 402;
indicated by compounds, 388. 6; im-
plied, 428. j. Nn.
Motion, end of, see End of Motion.
Motive, how expressed, 404. b.
Mountains, names of, gend., 31 and 0.
Mulciber, decl., 50. c.
muliebris, decl., 115. a. n.1.
multa nocte, 293. N.
Multiplication by distributives, 137. c.
Multiplicatives, 139.
multum (-6), compar., 218. a.
multus, compar., 129.
minus, decl., 105. g; miinus est ut, 568,
miis, decl., 71. 6. -
miisica (-€), decl., 44.
Musical accent, 611.
mitare, constr., 417. 6.
Mutes, 4; mute stems, decl. ITI, 56-64,
mythos, decl., 52.
462
N, 4; as final letter of stem (ledn-), 61.1;
preceding stem vowel of vb.,176. b.1;
inserted in verb root (tang6), 176. c. 2,
177. b. N.
nais, decl., 82.
-nam (enclitic), in questions, 333. a.
nam, namque, use, 324. h, k.
Names of men and women, 108.
Naming, vbs. of, w. two accs., 393.
Nasals, 4,6; inserted in verb root, 176.c. 2.
natalis, decl., 76. b. 2.
nati (maior, minor), 131. c.
natus etc., w. abl. of source, 403. a.
navis, decl., 76. b. 1.
-nd, -nt, vowel short before, 10. e.
-ndus, verbal adj. ending, 253. a; gerun-
dive in, 158. d.
-ne (enclitic), use in questions, 332. a-c;
w. force of nénne, 332. c; orig. mean-
ing, id. n.1; in double questions, 335;
in exclamatory questions, 462. a; quan-
tity, 604. a. 1.
né, neg. of hortatory subjv., 439; in pro-
hibitions, 450.3; in concessions, 527. a;
w. subjv. of proviso, 528. 6; in final
clauses, 531; =nédum, 532. n.1; in
substantive clauses, w. vbs. of hinder-
ing, 558. 0; of fearing, 564; omitted
after cavé, 565. n. 1.
né non, w. vbs. of fearing, 564.
né,.. quidem, use, 322.7; after non, 327.
1; after ndn modo, 217. e; position of,
599. 6.
Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen.,
385. ¢.
nec enim, 324. h.
necesse, indecl., 103. N.1; necesse est ut,
568, 569. 2. n. 2.
Necessity, vbs. of, w. perf. pass. inf.,
486. d; in apod., 517. c, 522. a; w. ut-
clause, 569. 2.
necne in double questions, 335 and N.
nédum, 532. n. 1, 2.
nefas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -ii, 510.
Negation, perfect preferred in, 475. a.
Negative answers, 332. b, 336 and a. 2.
Negative particles, list of, 217. e; use
of, 325; two re 326; neg. form
different from English, 328; neg. con-
dition, 525. a; neg. proviso, 528; neg.
purpose, 531; neg. result, 538, 568;
position of, 599. a.
nego, better than dicd . . . non, 328, 580. b.
negotium dé ut, 563. ftn. 2.
némo, use of, 314; gen. and abl. sing. re-
placed by niillius and nillé, 314. a; ném6
non, 326. b; némd est qui, 535. a. N.1.
neque (nec), and not, 328. a; neque enim,
use, 324.A; neque after a neg., 327. 2, 3,
néquam, indecl., 122. 6; compar. of, 129.
nequed, conj., 206. d.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
néquis, decl., 310. a.
nescio an, 575. d.
nescid quis, as indefinite without subjyv.,
575. d.
-neus, adj. ending, 247.
Neuter acc. as adv., 214. d, cf. b. N.
Neuter adjs., special uses of, 289.
Neuter gender, general rule for, 33; cases
alike in, 38. 6; endings of decl. III, 87.
Neuter pron. as cognate acc., 390. c.
Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs.
néve, connective in prohibitions, 450. n. 5,
nex, decl., 103. g. 2.
ni-, primary suffix, 234. IT. 5.
ni, nisi, 512. nN; use of, 525. a.
-nia, -nium, noun endings, 241. c.
niger, decl., 112; distinct from 4ter, 131.
.N.
nihil, indecl., 103. a; contr. to nil, 603. c.
nihil, gen. of value, 417. a.
nihili and nihil, 103. a. Nn. 2.
nimirum quam,as indefinite without subjv.,
575. d.
ningit, 208. a.
nisi and si non, 525. a; nisi si, id. 3;
nisi vérd (forte), id. b.
nitor, w. abl., 431.
nix (stem and decl.), 79. d; plur., 100. b.
No, in answers, how expressed, 336. a. 2.
no- (na-), primary suffix, 234. II. 4.
no-, verb suffix, 176. b. 1.
noli, in prohibitions, 450. (1) and n .1.
ndl6, conj., 199; part. w. dat. of the per-
son judging, 378. N.; w. perf. act. inf.
in prohibitions, 486. c.; w. perf. pass.
inf. (or part.), id. d and Nn.
Nomen, denoting gens, 108.
nomen, decl., 64.
ndmen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 373. a;
Ww. gen., id. N.
Nominal adjs., 243-254.
NoMINATIVE defined, 35. @; nom. suffix,
338; neut. plur. nom. and ace. alike,
38. 6; in decl. II, 45. a; in decl. III,
56, 58, 61, 66, 79; of neuters, i-stems,
68. a; in u-stems, decl. IV, 88; in e-
stems, dec]. V, 95.
Nominative, Syntax (see 338): in pred-
icate, 283, 284; verb-agreement with,
316; as subject, 339; in exclamations,
339. a (cf. 397. d); used for vocative,
340. a; w. opus in predicate, 411. b;
nom. of gerund supplied by inf., 502. Nn.
non, derivation, 215. 1; compounds of,
326. a, b; in answers, 336. a. 2.
non dubitd quin, 558. a; non dubitd w. inf.,
id. N.2; w. indir. quest., id. N.1.
non modo, after a negative, 327. 1.
noén modo... né... quidem, 217. e.
non némd, non niillus, etc., 326. a.
non quia (quod, qu6, quin) etc., 540. n. 3%.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
non satis, 291. c. N. 2.
Nones (nonae), 631. c.
ndnne, in questions, 332. b.
nos, decl., 143; for ego, 143. a.
noster, for poss. gen., 302. a.
nostri, as objective gen., 143. c, 295. b.
nostrum, as partitive gen., 145. b, 295. b;
as objective gen., 295. b.N
Noun and adj. forms of vb., 166.
Noun stem, treated as root, 176. d.
Nouns defined, 20. a; indecl., gend., 33;
decl. of, 37-95 = derivative forms of, 235-
241; used as adjectives, 321. c; rule of
agreement, 281; w. part. gen., 346. a. 1;
ii ve gen., 348; governing acc., 388.
; noun as protasis, 521. a.
Nodne of agency, 235; formation, 236.
novendecim, 133. N. 2.
nox, decl., 72.
ns, nf, gn, quantity of preceding vowel,
10. d, 603. d.
“nS, as adjective ending, 118; participles
in, decl., 119 .23 w. gen., 349. b;
Ww. ace., jd. w.1
nt- (ont-, ent-), primary eye 234. II. 18.
nt-, stems in, decl., 121. a.
nu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 6,
niibés, decl., 72.
nibd, W. dat., 368. 3
niillus, decl., 113; use, 314. a; cf. némd.
num, force of, 332. b; in indirect ques-
tions, id. N.
Number, 35; nouns, defect. in, 99, 100,
101, 103. f, g; variable in, 107; pecul-
iar uses, 101. N.1, 317. d.N.?; number
in vbs., 154. e; agreement in, 280; w.
appositives, 233, a; w. adjs., 286 and 6;
w. vbs., 316, 317. d.
Numeral ‘advs., 138.
Numerals, 132-139; cardinals and ordi-
nals, 132, 133; distributives, 136; advs.,
138; others, 139. Position of numeral
adjs., 598. b.
nuimquis, 149. b, 310. a.
nunc, compared w. iam, 322. b.
nunc... nunc, 323. f.
nurus, gend., 90.
-nus, adj. ending, 250
® for u after or v, 6. a, 6; in decl. II,
Dy Bg
o @), tet suffix, 234. I. 1.
-6 in nom., 61. 1; gend., 86; in fem. abl.
of Greek adjs., 111. d. N
-6, Onis, noun ending, 236. ¢, 255.
6 si, Ww. subjv. of wish, 442. a and Nn. 1.
o-stems, decl. II, 45; in adjs., 111-113;
vbs. from o-stems, 259. 2.
ob, use, 220. a, 221. 15; in comp., 267. a;
in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370; toexpress
cause, 404. 6; Ww. gerund, 506 and N.1.
463
obed, constr., 370. b.
Obeying, vbs. of, 367; w. acc., id. a.
Object cases, 274. a.
Object clauses, infin, , 452; subjv., 561-568.
Object defined, 4; becomes ‘subj. of
pass., 275, 387. b; acc. of direct w.
dat. ‘of indir. obj. -, 362; secondary
obj., 394; obj. of anticipation, 576.
Objective case expressed in Latin by gen.,
at., acc., or abl., 274. a.
Objective compounds, 265. 3.
° fined, 3 genitive, mei etc., 143. ¢; de-
bates 0Ws nouns, 348; w. pag
Obligation, unfulfilled, hortatory subjv.,
a aes cases, 35. g; origin of names of,
obliviscor, w. acc. or gen., 350. a, b.
obvius (obviam), derivation, 216 and n.;
obviam as apparent adj., 321. d; w. dat.,
370. c.
Occasion, expressed by participle, 496.
dcior, compar., 130.
octédecim, 133. n. 2.
di, conj., 205; w. meaning of present, 476.
-oe, for -i in nom. plur., decl. I, 52. d.
offendd, constr., 370. b
-dius, names in, 49. f.
Old forms of pronouns: mis, tis, 143. a.
N.; méd, téd, id.
ollus (ille), 146. N. 4.
-olus, diminutive ending, 243 x
Omission, of possessive, 302. c; of ante-
cedent, 307. ¢
omnés ; nds omnes (instead of omnés nos-
dn-, stem-ending, 83. ¢
Sn, Greek ending, eat II, 52.
in-, stem-ending, 61. 1, 234. II. 13.
-On, gen. plur., ecl. I, 52. ¢.
in, nom. ending, 83. ¢, d.
ont-, nom. -dn, 83. d.
Open syllables, 7. Ne,
opera, w. gen., 405. b.
operam dd, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505;
w. subjv., 563.
Operations of nature, 208. a.
opinidne, w. compar., 406. a.
opinor, position of, 509. ¢.
oportet, 208. c; w. ace., 388. c; in apod.,
517. ¢; imperfect refers to present,
plupf. to past, 522. a. N.1; w. subjv. or
inf., 565 and n. 3.
see w. pres. inf., 486. a; w. perf
in
oppidum, ad, 428. b.
oppiignd, w. acc., 370. b.
ops, defect., 103. f. 1F
Optative, derivation, and comparison
w. subjy., 436
464
Optative forms in the vb., 168. e. N.2,
169. d.
pete subjv. (wish), 441; w. utinam
, 442; velim etc. w. subjy., equiv.
ae id. b.
optimatés, 71. 5, 101. 3.
opus, indecl., 103. @; opus and isus, w.
abl., 411; as pred. nom., id. b; w.
participle, 497. a; w. supine in -ti, 510.
or-, stem-ending, decl. Ill, 63. Hac. 2.
-or, noun ending, 238. a.
-or or -ds, nom. ending, 62. N.2; gend., 85.
Oratié obliqua, see Indirect Discourse.
Order of words, 595-601.
Ordinal Numbers, 132-135; decl., 134. e;
use of et with, 135. a, b
ord, constr., 563.
Orpheus, decl., 52. e.
os-, stem of comparatives, 120. b.
-os for -us, in nom. sing., decl. II, 46. N.1;
as Greek ending, 52; as gen. ending in
Greek nouns, decl. III, 81. 1.
0s, ossis, stem, 79.
-Os, nom. ending, 62. N.2; gend., 85.
6s, ‘oris, decl., 103. g. 2.
sus, -léns, Jentus; gat endings, 245
ovat (defective), 206
ovis, decl., 76. 0. 1
P, parasitic after m (simpsi), 15. 11.
pacto, as.abl. of manner, 412. b.
paene, in apod., 517. b. N.2.
paenitet, 208. b; constr., 354. b, ¢.
Paeon, 609. d.
palam, as apparent adj., 321. d; w. abl.,
432. ¢
Palatals, 4.
palister, decl., 115. a.
Panthis, vocative of, 52. b.
par, decl., 119, 121. a. 3; w. gen., 385. ¢;
w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. ftn. 2.
Parallel verb forms, 189.
Parataxis, 268.
paratus, w. infin., 460. b.
Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
Parisyllabic nouns of decl. THI, 65. a.
pariter, use, 384. n.2
parte, locative use, without prep., 429. 1.
partem, adverbial use, 397. a.
particeps, decl., 121. a. 4, b.
PARTICIPLES, " defined, 20. d. N.1; com-
parison of, 124. a; number of, 155. a;
how used, 158.
PARTICIPLES, Syntax, 488-500; agree-
ment, 286 and n.; clause equivalent to
part., 308. ¢c; arts. in -ns, used as adjs.,
Ww. gen., 349. ; parts. in abl. absolute,
419; meaning ‘and form, 488; tenses,
ae: present in special use, 490 ;
pass. part., how supplied, 492:
ee act., how supplied, 493; parts. of
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
deponent vbs., 190. a, b, 491,493; adjec-
tive use, 494; ‘as nouns, id.a; predicate
use, 495, 496; w. opus, 497, a; perf. w.
habe6, id. b; present w. facid, id.c; fut-
ae os pet 498; w. past tenses of esse,
poetic and late use, 499; gerund-
ive use as part. or adj., 500; part. as
protasis, 521. a.
Particles defined, 23; forms and classifi-
cation, 213; note on formation, 215,
216; interrogative, 21ti as negative,
id. e, 8325; in comps., 267. Syntax, 321-
336; use of interrogative particles, 332.
a-c; conditional particles, 512. a and
N., 525; particles of comparison, 524.
Particular conditions defined, 513.
partior, conj., 190.
Partitive apposition, 282. a.
Partitive genitive, 346; nostrum ete., 143.
b; neut. adjs. with, 346. 3 and n.1.
Partitive numerals, 139. c.
Parts of Speech, 20,
partus, decl., 92. ¢.
parum, compar., 218. @; meaning, 291. c.
N
parvi, gen. of value, 417.
parvus, compar., 129
Passive voice, 154. a; origin, 163. ftn. 2,
208. d. N.; signification, 156; reflexive
meaning, id. a; deponents, 156. b; com-
pleted tenses, how formed, 179. g;
passive used impersonally, 203. a, 208.
d, 372 (cf. 566, 582. a).
pater familias, decl., 43. b.
patiéns, compar., 124. a.
patior, constr., 563. c.
Patrials in -as, decl., 71. 5, 121. a. 4.
Patronymics (-ades, -ides, -eus, etc.), 244
pauper, decl., 121. a. 4.
pax, decl., 103. g. 2.
peci, gend., 91; decl., 105. f.
peciiniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 352.
aand N.
pedester, decl., 115. a.
pelagus (plur. pelagé), gend. of, 48. a.
pelvis, decl., 76. b. 1
Penalty, gen. of, ‘352 and n.; abl. of,
Penatés, decl., 71. 5 (ef. 101. a
penes, following noun,
Pentameter verse, 616. °
Penult, defined, 12.
penus, gend., 90. Exe.; decl., 105. c.
per, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 16; w. acc.
of agent, 405. 6. Adverbial prefix, w.
adjs., 267. d. 1 (cf. 291. c. n.1); w.-vbs.,
267. d. N
Perceiving, vbs. a constr., 459.
perendié (loc.), 98 :
Perfect participle, Pie uses, 158. c. 1, 2;
of deponents, 190. 6; used as noun,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
retains ady., 321. 6; dat. of agent w.,
375; abl. w. opus and iisus, 411. a, 497. a.
PERFECT TENSE distinguished from im-
perf., 161, 471; perf. def. and perf. hist.,
161, 473; personal endings, 163. a, 169.
a; origin of i and sin, 163. ftn.3; stem,
how formed, 177, 179; perf. subjyv., suf-
fixes of, 169. d; of conj. I, 179. a. 2;
contracted perf., 181. a, 6; perf. subjv.
in -sim, 183. 3; irreg. forms of conj. I,
209. a; of conj. Il, 210. c¢; various, of
conj. III, 211; of conj. IV, 212.
‘PERFECT TENSE, Syntax. Perf. Ind.,
use, 473; in general conditions, id. a,
518. b; gnomic perf., 475; in fut. condi-
tions, 516. e. Perf. Subjv., hortatory,
439 and n.1!; optative, 441. @; potential,
446 ; in prohibitions, 450 (3) ; in fut. con-
ditions, 516.c. Perf. Inf., in exclama-
tions, 462 and n.?; w. débe0 etc., 486. b;
w. 0010 or vol6 in prohibition, id. ¢; pass.
w. volé etc., id. d; instead of the pres.
inf., id.e; w. vbs. of feeling etc., id. f;
in ind. disc., 584.a@and N. Sequence of
Tenses, perf. ind., 485. a; perf. subjv.,
id. b, c, 585. a.
Periclés, decl., 82.
Period, 600, 601.
Periphrastic conjugations, 158. b. N., d.
N.; paradigms, 195, 196; periphrastic
forms in conjugation, 193; use in con-
trary to fact apodosis, 517. d; in ind.
questions, 575. a.
Permission, vbs. of, constr., 563. c.
permito, w. abl., 417. 6.
pernox, decl., 122. c.
perpes, decl., 121. a. 3.
Person, 154. d; agreement, 280; of vbs.,
316 and a; w. different persons, 317. a;
order of the three persons, id.
Personal constr. of passive w. infinitive,
582.
Personal endings, 163 and ftn. 1.
Personal pronouns, 142, 143, 294, 295; re-
duplicated forms, 143. e; Syntax, 295;
omitted, id. a, 318.a; gen. plur., 295. b;
3d pers., id. c; position of personal and
demonstrative, 599. f.
persuaded, constr., 563.
Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
pertaesum est, 354. b.
pés, comps. of, decl., 121. b. 1.
Pet names, gend., 30. a. N.?.
peto w. ab, 396. a; w. subjv., 563.
ph only in Greek words, 4. 1. ftn. 2;
sound of, 8.
Phalecian verse, 625. 11.
Pherecratic verse, 623. 2, 624, 625. 2, 4, 12.
Phonetic variations, 14-19; phonetic
decay, id.; vowels, 15, 17; consonants,
15. 4-17.
465
Phrase, defined, 277.
Phrases, neut., 33; phrases and clauses
grown into advs., 216; adverbial
phrases, 277; phrases limited by gen.,
343. c; phrase or clause in abl. abs.,
419. b.
Physical qualities, abl., 415. a.
piger, decl., 112. a.
piget, constr., 354. b. -
Pity, vbs. of, constr., 354. a.
pius, compar., 128. N., 181. a.
pix, decl., 103. g. 2.
Place, advs. of, 217. a; relations of, re-
quire prep., 381. a, 426; place of birth,
abl., 403. a. N.2; place where, 426. 3,
427.3; place to or from which, 426. 1, 2;
prep., when omitted, 426. ftn., 427. 1, 2.
a, 429. a; locative case, 427.3. a, 428. k.
Placing, vbs. of, constr., 430.
Plants, gend. of names of, 32 and b;
decl. of plant names in -us, 105. a.
plaudo, w. dat., 368. 3.
Plautus, absque mé etc., 517. f; use of quom
w. indic., 546. n.4, 549. N.8; prosodial
forms, 620. a, 628. 6, 629.
Pleasing, vbs. of, constr., 367.
plébés, decl., 98. d
Plenty, vbs. of, constr., 356, 409. a.
plénus, constr., 409. Nn.
-plex, numeral adjs. in, 139.
pluit .(impers.), 208. a; used personally,
id. N.
Pluperfect Indicative, suffixes of, 169. b;
use of, 477; epistolary, 479; pluperf.
indic. in conditions cont. to fact, 517. 0;
in general conditions, 518. 6. Pluperf.
Subjv., suffixes of, 169. e; hortatory,
439. b; optative, 441; potential, 446; in
conditions, 517 (sequence, 485. g).
Plural, wanting in decl. V, 98. a; used
in sense different from sing., 100. a-e,
107 ; plur. alone used, 101. N.1; plur. ace.
used as advys., 215. 3; neut. plur. ofadjs.,
289. b.
Pliralia tantum, 101.
pliris, gen. of value, 417 and e¢.
plis, dec]., 120 and c; compar., 129; with-
out quam, 407. ¢.
poéma, decl., 60. a.
poenitet, see paenitet.
pondo, defect., 103. . 5.
pond, w. abl., 430.
por-, prefix, 267. b.
porticus, gend., 90. Eze.
portus, decl., 92. c.
Position, expressed by ab, ex, 429. b.
Position in Prosody, 11. b, 603. 7; does not
affect final vowel, 603. 7. N. +.
posse, as fut. inf., 584. b.
Possession, how expressed, 302. a; dat.
of, 373; compared w. gen., id. n,
466
Possessive compounds, 265. a.
Possessive genitive, 343 and a-c; dat. of
reference used instead, 377.
Possessive pronouns, 145; agreement,
302 ; instead of gen., id. a; ‘special mean-
ings, id. 6; omission, id. c; used sub-
stantively, ‘id. d; w. gen. in app., id. e;
used for gen., '343. ; for obj. gen.,
348. a.
Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 517. c.
possum, in apodosis, S17;"c:
poe adverbial use of, 433. 1; with quam,
oak: aoe comp. w., with dat., 370.
postera, defect., 111. b; compar., 130. b;
posteri, id.
posterior, 130. b.
Postpositive conjunctions, 324. 7.
postquam (postedquam), in temporal
clauses, 543.
postrémo, in enumerations, 322. d. N.
postridié, w. gen., 359. b; w. acc., 432. a;
Ww. quam,
postuld ab, 396. ‘a; postuld ut, 563.
By ag mood, how expressed in Latin,
157
Potential subjunctive, 445-447.
potior (adj.), compar., 130.
potior vee w. gen., 357. a, 410. a; w.
ey iY 0; w. acc., id. N. 1; gerundiye,
potis, seth 122. b.
potius, compar., 218. a
potul, w. pres. infin., 486. a.
Practice, vbs. of, 263. 6.
prae, 220. b; use, "O91. 17; in comp., 291. c.
n.1; ; in comps., w. dat., 370; incompar.,
Ww. quam, 434; quantity of, in comps.,
603. b. Exc
praecédo, pane -» 310.
praeceps, decl., 119, 121. a. 3.
praecipio, constr., 563.
Praenomen, 108; abbreviations, id. c.
praepes, decl., 121. b. 1.
praestolor, constr., 367. b.
vraesum, w. dat. of ee etc., 505.
praeter, use, 220. a, 221. 1
praeterit, Ww. acc., 388. c¢.
preci, defect., 103. eB,
precor, constr. , 563.
Predicate, defined, 270; modified, 276;
pred. noun or adj., 273, 283 ; case, 284;
pred. noun referring to two or more
sing. nouns, id. a; adjective, 285. 2,
286. a; agreement in, 287. 1-3; in rel.
clause, 306; pred. adj. in neut. lur.,
287. 4. a; pred. adj. in relative c ause,
307. f; pred. gen., 343. b, c; pred. ace.,
, 393; adj. as p Ped Fates
ace. becomes pred. nom. in the
pass.
id. a; ; Predicate use of participles, 496.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Predicate noun or adj. after ee 452. N. 2,
455. a and n., 458. 581. n. 8
Prepositions, assimilation of, 16; defined,
20. f; derivation of, 219; list of preps.
w. acc., 220. a; w. abl., id. b; w. either,
id. c; idiomatic uses, 291; comp. W. vbs.
and adjs., 267. a, Cc; noun w. prep., in-
stead of obj. gen., 348. c; in comp. w.
vbs., w. dat., 370, 381; acc. in comp.,
395; w. abl. ‘of separation, 401; ont 8
omitted in relations of 5p, Bn 29 6
429 and a; use of, 220
432-435 ; preps. following the ean 435!
usual position of, 599. d. (See 338.)
Present participle, ‘decl., 119; use, 158. a.
Present stem, how formed, 168, 174; from
root, 176.
Present subjunctive in -im, 183. 2.
Present tense, w. iam diii etc., 466; cona-
tive, 467; for fut., 468; historical, 469;
annalistic, id. a; w. dum, 556; in quo-
tations, 465. a; sequence, 483, 485. e, 7;
pres. inf. w. potui etc., 486. a; participle,
489, 490, 492, 494, 496. Pres. inf. in ind.
disc. referring to: past time, 584. aand nN.
Preteritive verbs, 205. n. 2, 476.
Preventing, vbs. of, constr., 364. N. 2,
Price, abl. or gen., 416.
pridié, form, 98. 6; w. gen., 359. 6; w. acc.,
432. a; w. quam, 434.
Primary suffixes, defined, 233.
Primary tenses, 482. 1, 483.
primipilaris, decl., 76. a. 2..
Primitive verbs, 256.
primd, primum, meanings, 322. d and N.
primoris, defect., 122. ¢.
primus, form, 130. fin. 2.
princeps, decl., 121. a. 4.
Principal parts of baie: 172, 173.
prior, compar., 130. a
prius, w. quam, 434: priusquam in tem-
poral cl clause, 550, "BDI; ; in ind. dise.,
Privation « expressed by abl., 400.
pro, 220. b; use, 221. 19; in aig. oy Ww.
dat., 370; to express for, 379. N.
probo, Ww. dat., 368, 375. b. N
Proceleusmatic, 609. N.
procérus, decl., 111. a. N.
procul, w. abl., 432. c.
prohibeo, constr. of, 364. n. 2,
Prohibitions, 450; in ind. dise., 588. N. 2,
Promising ete. , vbs. of, 580. ¢.
Pronominal roots, 228, 232; as primary
suffixes, id.
PRONOUNS defined, 20. ec; decl. of, 140-
151; personal, 142, pens reflexive, 144;
gen., how used, 143. c, 302. a; rjaneaen
strative, 146; relative, 147; inte
and indef., 148-151; pron. contained
verb ending, 263. ftn, 1, 271, a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Pronouns, Syntax, 294-315; Personal,
295; Demonstrative, 296-298 ; idem,
298. a, 6; ipse, id. cS; Reflexive, 299 :
Possessive, 302; Relative, 303-308 ; In-
definite, 309-314. Prons. w. part. gen.,
346. a. 1. Relative in protasis, 519.
Position of prons., 598. e, J.
Pronunciation, Roman method, 8; Eng-
lish method, 8. N.
pronintio, constr., 563.
prope, compar., 130; use, 220. a; in apod.,
517. b. N.2
prope est ut, 568.
Proper names, 108; plur., 99. 1, 101. 1.
Proper nouns, 20. a.
properus, decl., 111. a. N.
propinquus, w. gen., 385. ¢.
propior (propius), compar., 130. a; constr.,
. a@and N.
Proportional numerals, 139. a.
Propriety, vbs. of, in apod., 51T. c, 522. a.
proprius, w. gen., 585. Cc.
propter, use, 220. a, 221. 20; position, 435;
denoting motive, 404. b.
Prosopy, pa rules and definitions,
603-606; earl ‘s peculiarities, 629.
prosper(-us), deel., 111. a.
: as
Protasis (see Conditional "Sentences), 512
ff.; loose use of tenses in Eng., 514. C.
N.3 ; relative in prot., 519; temporal par-
ticles in, 542; antequam, priusquam, in,
551. ¢. N.? ; prot. in ind. disc., 589. .F
Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 364. wit,
Protraction of long syllables, 608. c.
provided, w. dat. or acc., 367. ¢.
Proviso, subjv. used in, ” 528. a and b; in-
troduced by modo etc., 528; hortatory
subjv. expressing, id. ‘a; subjy. w. ut
(or né), id. b; chatactarintic clause ex-
pressing,
proximé, constr., 432, e
proximus, constr.,
“Pee, cpte (onclii)s 143. ‘d. N., 145. a, 146.
7,8
piibés’ decl., 105. e, 121. d.
pudet, 208. b; constr., 354. b, c, and N.
puer, decl. 47 (cf. 50. ‘a).
pulcher, decl., 112. a.
Punishment, "abl. of, 353. 1.
puppis, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1.
dat. of, 382; infin. of, 460;
expressed by gerundive after certain
vbs., 500. 4; by gerund or gerundive
* predicate gen., 504. a. N.1; ways
f expressing, 533. Clauses of, 279. d;
defined and classified, 529 ff.; use of
qué in, 531. a; main clause omitted, 532;
nsdum, i id., N. 1,2, Substantive clauses
<i jatter’ certain vbs., 563; of
g, id. b; of permitting, id. ¢} of
467
determining, id. d; of caution etc., id.
e; of fearing, 564
Purpose or en Seg of, 382.
puter, decl., 115
qua... qua, 323. f.
quadrupés, decl., 121. b. 1.
quae res (or id quod), 307. d.
gt constr. (ex or dé), 396. a; w. subjv.,
quaeso, conj., 206. e.
qualis, 151. i.
Qualities (abstract), gend., 32.
Qualities of an object compared, 292.
Quality, adjs. of, 251; gen. of, 345, 415. a;
to denote indef. value, 417 and a; abl.
of, 415 (cf. 345. N.).
quam, derivation of, 215. 2; with super-
lative, 291. c; w. compar. ” and positive
or w. two positives 292. a. N.; cor-
relative w. 323. g; W. compar.,
407. a, e; para alius, id. @; w. compar.
of advs., 434; w. ante, post, id.; w.
subjy. after compar., 535. G3 followed.
by result clause, B71. a; in indirect
questions, 575. d; in ind. disc., 581.
N. 2, 583. c.
quam dit, 555. Nn. 2.
quam ob causam, 398.
quam qui, quam ut, w. subjv., 535. c.
quam si, 524.
quamquam, use, 527. d;
proposition = and yet,
subjv., id. e.
quamvis, use, 527. a; subjy. or. ind. w.,
440. N., 527. a, e.
quando (interrog.), derivation and mean-
ing, 215.6, 5389; causal (since), 540.aand
Nn.; indef., id.; temporal, 542
quanti, gen. of price, 417.
Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price,
417.
introducing a
idsicN.37- We
Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 10. e;
nature of, 602; general rules of, 9-11,
603 ; final syllables, 604 ; pert. and
perf. parts., 605; derivatives, 606.
quantd, w. tanto, 414. a.
quantum (with mirum), in indirect ques-
tions, 575. d.
quantus, 151. 7.
quasi, with a tenses, 524. n. 2.
quasso (intensive), 263
-que (enclitic), added ‘to indefinites, 151.
g; as conj., boa c. 3, 324.a@; quan-
tity, 604. a.
queé Veaetostive), 206. d.
qués, old nom. plur., 150. c.
Questions, direct, in indic., 157. a
335; indirect, 330, 2, 331. N.; “ouble
uestions, 334 ; question and ‘answer,
; result clause in exclam. questions,
468
462. a; mood in indir. question, 574;
in ind. disc., 586; in informal ind. disc.,
592. 1.
qui (adverbial), 150. b.
qui (relative), decl., 147; (interrog. and
indef.), 148 and b; in compounds, 151;
qui=ut is, w. subjv., 531. 2. N., 537. 2;
qui causal and concessive, 535. e.
quia, derivation etc., 539; use, 540. n.1;
causal, id.; w. vbs. of feeling, 572. 0;
in intermediate clauses, 592. 3.
quicum, 150. bd.
quicumque, decl., 151. a.
quid, in exclamations, 397. d. n.1.
quidam, decl., 151. c; meaning of, 310;
Ww. ex, 346. c.
quidem, use, 322. e; w. is or idem, 298. a;
ition of, 599. 6.
quilibet, decl., 151. c; use, 312.
quin, w. indic. equiv. to command, 449. b;
in result clause (—qui n6n), 558, 559;
w. vbs. of hindering, 558; non dubito
quin, 558. a.
Quinary or hemiolic measures, 609. d.
quinquatris, gender, 90; plural only,
101. 2.
quippe, w. relative clause, 535. e. N.1; w.
cum, 549. n.1.
Quirités, 101. 3.
quis, decl., 148, 149; distinguished from
qui in use, id. b and N.; compounds of
(aliquis etc.), 151. d-/, 310 and 0; quis
w. si, num, né, 310. a; indef. use of, 310.
quis est qui, 535. a.
quis, dat. or abl. plur., 150. c.
quisnam, 148. e.
quispiam, 151. d; use of, 310 and b.
quisquam, decl., 151. d; use, 311, 312.
quisque, form and decl., 151. g; use in
general assertions, 313; in dependent
clause, id. a; w. superlative, id. 6; w.
plur. vb., 317. e.
quisquis, decl., 151. 6.
quivis, decl., 151. c; use, 312.
quo-, stems in, 46. Nn. 2.
qué, approaching abl. of cause, 414. a. N.
quo in final clauses (= ut ed) w. subjv.,
531. @; non qué, 540. n. 3.
qué. ..ed, 414. a; to denote deg. of
difference, id.
quoad (intention etc.), 553; (fact), 554;
(as long as), 555.
quod for id quod,’307. d. n.
quod (conj.), 540. n.1; mood with, 540;
in ind. disc., id. 6; subst. clause with,
572; as acc. of specification, id. a; w.
vbs. of feeling, id. 6; quod in interme-
diate clauses, 592. 3 and Nn.
quod sciam (proviso), 535. d.
quod si, use, 324. d, 397. a.
quom (see cum), 6. b, 539. N.
é
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
quominus (=ut ed minus), w. vbs. of hin-
dering, 558. b. nie ;
quoniam, ori ; meaning and use,
540. 1. N. ena a.” .
quoque, use, 322. a; position, 599. b.
quot, indeclinable, 122. b; correl., 152.
Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in,
428. d. N.2; direct and indir., 578.
quotus quisque, 313. b. N.2.
quu- (cu-), 6. b.
quum (conj.), 6. b (see cum).
R substituted for s between two vowels,
15. 4 and n.; r- in adj. stems, 117. a;
tr- in noun stems, 62. N. 1. :
radix, decl., 57.
rastrum, plur. in -a and -i, 106. b.
ratione, as abl. of manner, 412. 6.
ratus, as pres. part., 491.
ravis, decl., 75. a. 2.
re- or red- (prefix), 267. b.
reapse, 146. n.7.
Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Reciprocal (each other), how expressed,
145. ¢, 301. f.
recordor, w. acc., 350. d; w. gen., id. N.;
w. dé, id. n.
réctum est ut, 568.
red-, see re-,
Reduplication, 177. c, 231. ¢; list of vbs.,
211.6; lost in fidi etc., id. 7. ftn. 3; rule
for quantity, 605. a.
Reference, object of, 349.
Reference, pronouns of, 297. /; commonly
omitted, id. Nn; dative of, 376; gen. of
specification, 349. d.
réfert, w. gen. or possessive adj., 355 and
a; other constr., id. b.
Reflexive pronouns, 144; Syntax of, 298.
c. N.2, 299-301; of 1st and 2d persons,
299. a.
Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive),
90. e, 208. d. N.; use of passive, 156. a;
w. object acc., 397. ¢.
Refusing, vbs. of, w. quéminus, 558. b.
Regular verbs, 171-189.
Relationship, nouns of, 244.
Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 152;
demon. for rel., 308.6; used to connect
independent sentences, id. f; referring
to loc., id. g; = pronoun w. prep., 321.
a; used in relative clauses of purpose,
531. 2; result, 537. 2.
Relative clauses, defined, 279. a; w. rel.
advs., 308.7; conditional, 519; final,
531, 533; characteristic, 535; consecu-
tive, 537; causal, 540. c; temporal,
541, 542; rel. clauses in ind. disc., 591;
position of rel. clause, 599. e.
Relative pronouns, decl., 147; forms, how
distinguished from interrogative and
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
indef., 148. b and n.; comps. of, 151,
310 and a, b. Syntax, m "rules
of agreement, 305, 306; w. two antece-
dents, 305. a; rel. in agreement w. app.
etc., 306; use of the antecedent, 307;
special uses of rel., 308; never omitted
in Lat., id. a; relatives as connectives,
id. f; pers. of vb. agreeing w., 316. a;
abl. of rel. after compar., 407. a. n.3;
position, 599. e.
relinquitur ut, 568.
reliquum est ut, 568.
reliquus, use, 293; reliqui, use, 315.
-rem, verb ending, 168. //.
Remembering, vbs. of, w. acc. or gen.,
350; w. inf
Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 351.
reminiscor, w. acc. or gen., 350. ¢.
Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 401.
Repeated action as general condition,
518. c.
repetundarum, 352. a.
Repraesentatio, 469. N.; in ind. disc.,
585. b and Nn.
requiés, decl., 98. d, 105. e..
rés, decl., 96.
Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 367, 558.
Resolution of syllables in ‘Prosody, 610.
ee: vbs. of, constr. (subjv. or inf.),
563. d
restat, w. ut, 569. 2.
restis, " decl., 15. b.
Restriction in subjunctive clause, 535. d.
Result, clauses of, 279. e, 534; sequence of
tenses in, 485. ¢; inf. of, 461. a. Sub-
junctive w. relatives or ut, 537; nega-
tive result w. ut non etc., id. a, 538;
result clause equivalent to proviso, 537.
6b; w. quin, 558; w. quoéminus, id. b.
Subst. clauses of result after facid etc.,
568; as subject, 569; in app. w. noun,
570; as pred. nom., "BTL; after quam,
id. a; tantum abest "ut, id. b; thought
as result, id. ¢.
Result, “e-"9 denoting, 239,
réte, decl., a. 3.
réx, "decl., st
Rhetorical questions in ind. disc., 586.
Rhotacism, 15. 4.
raga development of, 607; nature of,
Rhythmical reading, 612. d. N.
ti-, adj. stems in, 1 B. a.
riti, abl. of manner, 412. b.
rivalis, decl., 76. b. 2.
Rivers gender of names of, oo land a.
To- (ra: ra-), ee suffix, 234. II. 9.
ent: decl. If, 45. 6b; adj. stems, 111,
sah. Sia. of, 396 and b. N., c. N.2; w.
subjv., 568.
469
Roman method of pronunciation, 8.
Root, defined, 25, 228; consciousness of
roots lost in Lat., 23. N.; ; of vbs., 117.
1; noun stem treated as root, 176. d;
roots ending in vowel, id. e; root used
as stem, id. d. n. 1 and e, 231.
ros, decl., 103.
IT-, as stem yy os 62. n.1,
It-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4.
ruber, decl., 112. a:
riri, iocative, 80, 427. 3.
ris, decl., 103. g. 1; constr., 427. 1, 2, 3.
S changed tor, 15. 4 and n., 62. N.2; sub-
stituted for d ort, 15. 5; S- as stem ener
ing, 79. e; of adjs., 119. N.; ; of com
120.0; of perf. stem, 177. b; list o ase
of conj. III, w. perf. in s, 21. a; yo
pressed in ‘verb forms, 181. b. N.? :
early Lat., 629. a.
-s as sign of nom., 45, 46, 56, 95, 117. a,
338 ; -8 omitted in inscriptions, ‘46. N. 1;
-8, noun ending, decl. III, gend., 86.
sacer, decl., 112. a; comp., 131. a.
saepe, compar., 218. a.
sal, decl., 103. g. 2.
Salamis, decl., 83. a.
saliiber, "decl., 115. a.
saliitem, 397. d. N.2.
salvé, defect., 206. g.
sané quam, BID. d.
Sanskrit forms, see an ftn. 2, 170. 6. N.
sapiéns, decl., 76. b. 2
pe hic verse, a As "8.
s, decl., 98
saiia, compar., O18. a; compounds of, w.
dat., 368. 2; non ‘satis, 291. ¢. N.2;
satis est (satis habed), w. perf. infin.,
486.
satur, genitive of, 50. b; decl., 111. a;
compar., 131. b.
Saturnian verse, 628. d.
Saying, vbs. of, constr., 459; in passive,
ae “wang of verb, 176. 6. 1.
scaber, decl.,
Beanning, 612. ri 609. é. N.
scilicet erivation, 216. N.
scin, contracted form for scisne, 13. Nn.
scid, imperative of, 449. a.
Scipiadés, 44.6. N.
sciscé, constr., 563.
scitd, ‘scitdte, imv. forms, 182. es 449. Nye
-scd (inceptive), vbs. ending in, 263.
sé- or séd-, inseparable pre 567. op
sé, reflexive, decl., 144. 6; use, 299-301;
ter sé ¢c.
Second Coninaations prin. parts, 173;
pres. stem, how formed, 176. a; orma-
yon of, 179. b; paradigm, 185; vbs. of,
210; from noun stems, 260.
470
Second Declension, nouns, 45-47; accent
of ag and voc. of nouns in’ -ius, 12.
Exe. 2
Secondary object, 394.
Secondary suffixes, defined, 232.
Secondary tenses, 482. 2; rule for use of,
483; perf. def. more commonly sec-
ondary, 485. a; perf. subjv. in clauses
of result used ‘after, id. c; hist. pres.,
id. e; imperf. and pluperf. subjv., id.
g, h; present used as if secondary, by
synesis, id. .
secundum, Poets , 220. a; use, 221. 21.
secundus, derivation, 132. ftn.
seciris, decl., 75. b, 76. a. 1.
secus (adv.), compar., 218. a.
secus, indecl. noun, 103. a; use, 397. a.
seciitus (as pres. part.), 491.
sed-, see sé-.
sed compared with vérum etc., 324. d.
sédés, decl., 78. 1.
sedile, decl., 69.
Selling, vbs. of, 417. c.
sémentis, decl., 75. 6, 76. b. 1.
Semi-deponents, 192.
sémineci, defect., 122. c.
Semi-vowels, i and v (u), 5.
senati, mete, forms of gen. in decl.
IV, ‘92. a
senex, decl., 9 and c; adj. masc., 122. d;
comparison, 131. ¢.
Sentence, development, 268 ; defined, 269;
simple or compound, 278; incomplete,
318, 319
Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab,
dé, ex, and a few of ad, Pr = of, 400:
gen. for abl., 356. N.,
Sequence of tenses, 438-480; in oad. disc.,
; in conditional sentences in ind.
disc., 589. b.
sequester, decl., 105. b.
sequitur, w. ut, 569. 2.
sequor, conj., 190.
sera nocte, 293. N.
seriés, decl., 98. a.
Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 384,
Service, dat. of, 382. w.1
Serving, vbs. of, w. “ry , 367.
servus (Servos), decl.,
séstertium, séstertius, ‘632-634; how writ-
ten in cipher,
seu (Sive), 324. /, 25. ¢.
Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a
Should (auxiliary) , how we aie in Lat.,
157. b. ftn.
Showing, ~teg of, w. two accs., 393.
si, 511; w. subjv. ‘of wish, 442. a and N.1 ;
si and its compounds, use, 512. a. N.,
525; si non distinguished from nisi, id.
a. 1; miror si, 572. 0. N.; si = whether,
BI6. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Sibilants, 4.
sic, correl., w. ut, 323. g, 537.2. N.2; w.
si, 512. b.
siem (sim), 170. b. N.
Significant endings, 235-253.
Signs of mood and tense, 169. ftn.
silentio, without ates 412. b.
-silis, adj. ending, 25:
silvester, decl., 115. *
-sim, old form of perf. subjy., 183. 3.
similis, comparison, 126; w. gen. and
dat., 385. c. 2.
similiter, use, 384. N. 2.
Simois, decl., 82.
Simple sentences, 278. 1.
simul, simul atque (ac), 543
simul . . . simul, 323. f.
simul w. abl., 432. c.
sin, 512. a. N.
Singular, nouns defect. in, 103. f.
Singularia tantum, 99.
sinister, decl., 112. a.
sind, constr., 563. c.
-sid, noun ending, 238. b.
-sis-, dropped in perf., 181. 6. nN. 2.
sitis, decl., 67 (cf. 75. a. 2).
sive (seu) . . Sive, use, 324. f, 525. ¢.
Smell, vbs. ‘of, w. ’ace., 390. a.
-s0, old form of fut. perfect, 183. 3.
-sd, vbs. in, 263. 2.
socrus, gend., 90. Exe.
sddés te audés), 13. N., 192. a.
sl, decl., 103. g. 2.
soled, semi-dep., 192.
solito, w. compars., 406. a.
solitus, as pres. part., 491.
sdlus, decl., 113; w. relative clause of
characteristic, 535. b.
Sonants, 3.
sons, as participle of esse, 170. b.
-sor, see -tor.
Sodracte, decl., 76. 6. N. 2.
sordem, defect., 103. f. 3.
-sdria, noun ending, 254.4; -sdrium, noun
ening, 254. 5; -sdrius, adj. ending,
Sdspita, fem. adj. form, 121. e.
Sounds, see Pronunciation.
Source, expressed by abl., 403.
Space, extent of, expressed by acc., 425.
Sparing, vbs. of, ‘with rh 367.
spé, w. compars.,
Special ver find 181, 182.
speciés, decl., 98. a.
Specification, en. of, w. adjs., 349. d;
ace. of, 397. and N.; abl. of, 418.
specus, gend., 90. Hee.
Spelling, variations of, 6.
spés, 98. a and ftn.
Spirants, ts, 4.
Spondaic verse, 615. 6.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Spondee, 609. 6. 3.
spontis, -e, defect., 103. ¢. 2.
Stanza or ’Strophe, 614.
statud, w. vbs. of placing, 430; w. inf. or
subjv., 563. d.
Statutes, fut. imv. in, 449. 2.
ste for iste etc., 146. n. 5.
stella, decl., 41.
Stem ’puilding, 25. N.
Stems, defined, 24; classified, 229 ; how
formed from root, 26, 230-232 ; how
found in nouns, 37. a; a-stems, decl.
I, 40; adjs., 110; o-stems, decl. II, 45;
adjs. 110; in decl. iil, mute stems, 56-
60; liquid and nasal stems, 61-64;
i-stems, 65-69; mixed i-stems, 70-72:
u-stems, decl. "IV, 88, 89; in tu-, 94;
of vb., 165. 1; present, perfect, and
supine, 164. Pres. stem, how formed,
175, 176; perf. stem, 177; supine stem,
78. Tenses arranged by stems, synop-
ae 180.
w. abl., 431.
stripitic, decl., 76. b. 1.
strix, decl. ay
Structure of ee sentences, 600, 601.
strués, decl., 78. 2
studed, w. dat., 368. 3.
sudded, w. dat., 367.
sub-, in comp., w. adjs., 267. d.1, 291. c.
N.2; Ww. vbs., 267. a and d. N.
sub, use, 220. %, 221. 22; in comps., w.
dat., 370; of time, 494. e.
subed, W. ace ey 310.
Subject, 268 ; aaa: 270; how expressed,
271 and a; modified, 276; vb. “_
w., 316; two or more subjs.,3 317; sub
omitted, 318; accusative, 459; in in
disc., 580; position of subject, 596.
Subject clauses (inf.), 452. 1; (subjv.),
Subjective gen., defined, 343. n.1; use,
Sit junciive mood, 154. b; how used and
translated, 157. ’d. ftn. 2; tenses how
used, 162; vowel of pres. subjy., 179. a.
5 ON * e.1, d. Classification of uses,
438 ; hortatory subjv:, £99, 440; optative
subjv., 441, 442; eliberative, 443, 444;
potential subjv., 445, 446; subjv. of mod-
asta 5 tenses of subjy. +» 480-485 ;
dependent clauses, 481; subjv. in ind.
disc., 580; in informal "ind. disc., 592;
of in part, 593.
subolés, decl., 78. 2.
Subordinate clauses, defined, 278. 6; use,
519-593; in ind. disc., 579-593
Subordinate conjs., 223. 6, 224. Il. a-f.
Substance, gen. of, 344; abl. of, 403.
Substantive clauses, 560-572 ; nature and
classes of, 560 (cf. 561, 562) ; clauses of
471
purpose, 563-566; of result, 567-571;
indic. w. quod, 572; indirect questions,
573-576; adj. w. subst. clauses, 289. d;
inf. clauses, 452.
Substantive use of adjs., 288; of posses-
sive prons., 302. d.
Substantive verb ‘(esse), 272, 284. b.
subter, use, 220. c, 221. 23.
suétus, w. inf., 460. b.
Suffixes, 232; ‘primary, list of, 233, 234;
significant, 235-255
sul, decl., 144. b; use, 299, 300; w. gen.
of gerund, 504. ¢.
sum, conj., 170; as copula, 284; as sub-
stantive verb, id. 6; omitted, 319. b;
w. dat. of possession, ’3738; position, 598.
Css
summus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2; (¢op of),
sunt qui, 535. a.
suovetaurilia, 265. 1.
supelléx, decl., 79. c.
super, use, 20. ¢, 221. 24; in comps., 267.
a; incomps., w. dat., 370.
supera, defect., 111. } (ef. 130. a. N.2);
comp., 130. b; superi, id.
superior, compar., 130. B.
Superlative, suffix, 124. ftn.; in -rimus,
125; of adjs. in -lis, 126; 'W. maximé,
128; takes gend. of partitive, 286. b.
N.3 "of eminence, 291. 6; w. quam, vel,
or inus, id. ¢; denoting order, succes-
sion, 293; w. quisque, 313. 0
superstes, decl., 121. a. 4.
Supine, noun ‘of decl. IV, 94. b, 159. b;
stem, 164. 3; formation, 178, 179. a-d
(cf. 164. ftn.) ; irregular forms of, conj.
I, 209; conj. Il, 210; allied with ‘forms
in -tor, 236. a. N.1; ; Supine i in -um, use
of, 509; in *% 510; ” as abl. of specifica-
tion, 510. n.}
supplex, decl., 121. b. 1.
supplicd, w. dat., 368. 3.
supra, use, 220. a, 221. 25.
-siira, noun ending, 238. 6.
Surds, 3.
-surid, vbs. in, 263. 4.
-sus, ‘phonetic form of -tus, 94; noun
ending, 238. b.
sis, decl., 79 and a.
suus, use, ” 299,
Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 388. d, 580. c.
Syllables, rules for division of, 7; open
etc., id. N.2; long and short, 603. e, f
and notes
Syneresis, 603. ¢..N +p Jo N. 4, 642,
Synaleepha, 612. e. N. “ 642.
Synchysis, 598. h, 641.
Syncope, 640.
8 oe tneke, defined, 641.
Synecdochical ace., 397. b.
472
Synesis, 280. a; in gend. and number,
286. 6; in sequence of tenses, 485. i.
Synizesis, 603. c. N., 642.
Synopsis of tenses (am6), 180; of imper-
sonal vbs., 207.
Syntactic compounds, 267.
SynTAx, 268-601; historical development
of, 268. Important rules of Syntax, 594.
T changed to s, 15. 5, 178; t preceding
stem-vowel of vb., 176. b. 1; t- (s-),
yt SP stem-ending, 178, 179. a. 2, b. 2,
¢e. 2, d.
taedet, impersonal, 208. 6; constr., 354.
b, cand Nn.
taeter, decl., 112. a.
Taking away, vbs., of, 381.
Talent, value of, 637.
talis, 151. 7, 152.
talis ut etc., 537. Nn. 2.
tam, correl. w. quam, 323. g; correl. w.
ut, 537. N.2,
tamen, as correl., 527. c; position of,
324. j.
tametsi, concessive use, 527. c and n.1.
tamquam, in conditional clauses, 524; w.
primary tenses, id. nN. 1.
tandem, in questions, 333. a and N.
tanti, gen. of value, 417 and c; tanti est
ut, 568.
tanto following quanto, 414. a.
tantum, w. subj. of proviso, 528.
tantum abest ut, 571. b.
tantus, 151. 7, 152; tantus ut, 537. nN. 2.
-tas, -tia, noun endings, 241.
Taste, vbs. of, w. acc., 390. a.
-te (enclitic), 143. d and N.
Teaching, vbs. of (two aces.), 396.
tego, conj., 186.
Telling, vbs. of, constr., 459.
sah agi clauses, defined, 279. b, 541-
3 as protasis, 542; w. postquam etc.,
543; w. cum, 9; w. antequam and
priusquam, 550, 551; w. dum, ddnec,
552-556; replaced by abl. abs.,
Temporal numerals, 139. 6; conjunctions,
224. Il. d
tempus est abire, 504. n. 2.
Tendency, adjs. denoting, 251.
tener, decl., 111. a.
TENSES, 154. c; of passive voice, 156; of
poi 158; classification, mean-
ng, and use, 160-162; of the ind., 160,
161; of the subjv., 162; endings, 166;
of completed action, formation of, 179.
J, 9; synopsis of, 180.
TEnszs, Syntax, 464-486; classified, 464;
of ind., 465-479 ; Present tense, 465-459 ;
Imperfect, 470, 471; Future, 472; of
Completed action, 473-478; Epistolary
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
tenses, 479; of subjv., 480, 481 ; sequence
of, 482-485 ; tenses of the inf., 486; tense
emphatic, 598. d. (8); tenses of inf. in
ind. disc., 584; tenses of subjv. in ind.
disc., 585; affected by repraesentutid,
id. band N.; in condition in ind. disc.,
589. Notes on origin of syntax, 436, 464.
tenus, constr., w. gen., 359. b; w. abl.,
221. 26; position, 435, 599. d.
ter- (tor-, tér-, tor-, tr-), primary suffix,
234. IT, 15
-ter, adv. ending, 214. b, ¢.
Terence, absque mé etc., 517. £; prosodial
forms, 628. b, 629.
teres, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b.
-terior, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2.
Terminations of inflection, meaning of,
21. b; terminations of nouns, 39; of
verbs, 166. (See Endings.)
-ternus, as adj. ending, 250.
terra marique, 427. a.
terrester, decl., 115. a.
-terus, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2.
Tetrameter, Iambic, 619. a.
Than, how expressed, 406.
That of, not expressed in Lat., 297. f. Nn.
The, as correlative, 414. a and ftn.
Thematic verbs, 174. 1.
Thematic vowel &,, 174. 2. 1.
Thesis and Arsis, 611.
Thinking, vbs. of, constr. w. acc. and
inf., 459.
Third conj., of vbs., prin. parts, 173; pres.
stem, how formed, 176; formation, id.,
179. c; paradigm, 186; in -id, paradigm,
188 ; list of vbs., w. principal parts, 211;
derivation of vbs. in -u6, 261.
Third declension, of nouns, 53-87; mute
stems, 56-60; liquid stems, 61-64; i-
stems, 65-78; pure i-stems, 66-69;
mixed i-stems, 70-78; peculiar forms,
79; loc., 80; Greek nouns, 81-83; rules
of gend., 84-87.
Though, see Although.
Thought, considered as result, 571. c.
Threatening, vbs. of, 367, 580. c.
ti-, primary suffix, 234. II. 2.
-tia (-tiés), noun ending, 241.
-ticus, adj. ending, 247.
tigris, decl., 82.
-tilis, adj. ending, 252.
-tim, advs. in, 75. a. 3, 215. 2.
7 (see Temporal Clauses), 465 ff., 481,
Time, abl. abs. to denote, 419, 420.1; time
when,423; duration of time, 424.6; time
during or within which, w. ordinal, id.
c; distance of time, id. f; corresponding
to Eng. place, id. d.
Time, advs. of, 217. b.
Time, mode of reckoning, 630.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
timed, w. dat. or acc., 367. c; w. subjv.,
564
-timus, adj. eS 130. a. ftn. 2, 250.
-tid, noun ending, 233
tid (-sid), -tira, +is (titis), noun end-
ings, 238.
-tium, noun ending, 241. b. N.
-tivus, verbal adj. ending, aren
to- (ta-), primary suffix, 234. II. 1.
-t6, -itd, intensive or iterative vbs. in,
963. 2.
Too... to, 535. ¢
-tor (-sor), “trix, tel of agency in, 236.
a; used as adjs. ., 321. ¢.
-tiria, noun ending, 254. 4.
-torium, noun ending, 233. 2, 254. 5.
rei adj. ENE, 233. 2; as noun end-
ing,
tot, indeclinable, 122. 6b; correl., 152.
totidem, indeclinable, 122. b.
totus, decl., 113; nouns w., in abl. without
prep. (place where), 429. 2.
Towns, names of, gend., 32 and a, 48.
Exc. ; names of towns in -e, decl., 76.
N. 2; locative of, 427. 3; as place from
which, id. 1; as ‘place to which, id. 2.
tr-, stems in (pater etc.), 61. 4.
traici6, > constr., 395. n.1,8; traiectus lora,
id. n.3,
trans, 220. a; use, 221. 27; comps. of, w.
acc., 388. 6; w. two accs., 395.
Transitive verbs, 273.1, 274; absolute use,
273. N.2; how translated, 274. 6; w.
dat., 362.
Transposition of vowels, 177. a. N.
Trees, names of, gend., 32.
trés, decl., 134. 0.
pe ” stem-ending of nouns, 66; of adjs.,
15. a.
Tribe, abl. of, 403. a. n. 3.
Tribrach, 609. a. 3.
tribilis, decl., 76. a. 2.
tribus, gend., 90. Kxc.; decl., 92. c.
tridéns, decl., 76. 0. 2.
Trimeter, Iambic, 618.
Triptotes, 103. d.
trirémis, decl., 76. 6. 2.
-tris, adj. ending, 250.
triumpho, w. abl., 404. a.
-trix, see -tor.
tro-, primary suffix, 234. 16.
-tr6o, advs. in, 215. 4.
Trochaic verse, 613, 620.
Trochee, 609. a. 1; irrational, id. e, 623
and N.
-trum, noun ending, 240.
Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 367.
tu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 3.
ti, -si, supine endings, 159. b.
ti, "decl., 143 (see tite, titimet).
+tiids, -tiis, noun endings, 241,
473
tuli (tetuli), 200; derivation, id. ftn. 2;
quantity, 605 . Exe.
-tum, -sum, supine endings, 159. b.
tum, tunc, meaning, 217. 6; correl. w.
es 323. g:
- - . tum, 323. f.
“tira, -tiis, noun ending, 238. 0b.
-turid, desiderative vbs. si 263. 4.
-turnus, adj. ending,
-turris, decl., 67 (cf. 75. 75.5).
-tus, vad. vending, 246 jnonnentings 241.
-tus, ady. ending, 215. 6.
tussis, decl., 75. a. 2.
tite, 143. d: titimet, id.
Two accusatives, 391.
Two datives, 382. 1.
U (v), as consonant, 5; after g,4q,s, id. N.?;
not to follow u or v, 6. a, 6; u fore in
conj. III, 179. ¢. 1.
u-, primary suffix, 234. I. 3.
u-stems, of nouns, decl. III, 79 and a;
decl. IV, i of vbs., 174, 176. d, 259. 3
iiber, decl., 119.
ubi, derivation, 215. 5; in temporal
clauses, 542, 543
-ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. IV,
92. ¢.
-uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV, 92. e.
-iilis, adj. ‘ending, "048.
illus, decl., 113; use, 312.
ulterior, compar.,
ultra, 590. a; use, “Spt. 28; following
noun, 435.
-ulus, diminutive ending, 243; verbal adj.
ending, 25
-um Pugh ons, 43. d; for -drum, 49. d;
-um in gen. plur. of personal prons., 295.
; “um for -ium, decl. III, 78; in gen.
plur. of adjs., 121. 6; for -ium, ‘decl. IV,
Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
int-, stem-ending, 83. e.
iinus, decl., 113; meaning, 134. a; w.
superl., 291. ¢.
iinus qui, w. subjv., 535. b.
iinus quisque, decl., 151. g; use, 313.
uo-, suffix, see vo-.
-ud, vbs. in, 261.
“0S, see -uis,
-ur, nouns in, 87.
air ar tee , 72; use in relations of place,
Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 563.
-urid, esiderative vbs. in, 263. 4.
-urnus, adj. ending, 250.
-iirus, "fut. part. in, 158. 6, 498; w. fui,
498. b, 517. d; in ind. questions, O15. a;
-irus fuisse, in ind. disc., 589. b. 3.
-us, nom. ending, in decl. II, 46; -us for-er
in Greek nouns, decl. II, 52, b; “us, nom.
474
ending in decl. III, 63. Exc. 2; gend.,
87; decl. IV, 88; gend., 90; neut.
ending, 238. a.
-is, Greek nom. ending, 83. e.
Use, adjs. of, constr., 385. a.
isque, w. acc., 432. b.
iisus (need), w. abl., 411.
ut (uti), correlative w-ita, sic, 323. g; to
denote concession, 440, 527. a; ut (as)
w. ind. equiv. to concession, Bat. tt; Ww
optative subjv., 442. a; used ellipti-
eally in exclamations, 462. a; inclauses
of purpose, 531; ut né, id., 563. @. N. 2;
ut non, 531. 1. N. 2; of result, 537; ut
non ete., 538 ; ut temporal, 542, 543; vbs.
foll. by clauses wy ut, 563, 568 ; omis-
sion after certain | vbs., BGS and notes,
569.2.N.2; w. vbs. of fearing, 564 and N
ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 535.
@.N. 1; w. cum, 549, n.1.
ut primum, 543.
ut semel, 543.
ut si, constr., 524.
iter, decl., 66.
uterque, form and decl., 151.g, use, 313;
constr. in agreement and as partitive,
346. d.
itilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a.
utinam, w. subjy. of wish, 442.
itor etc., w. abl., 410; w. acc., id. a. N.1;
gerundive use of, 500. 3, 503. N. 2.
utpote qui, 535. e. n.1.
utrum.. . an, 335 and d.
-itus, adj. ending, 246.
-uus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
V (u), 1. b, 5 and n.1; suffix of perf.,
177. a, 179. a.Z, 6.2, di suppressed in
perf., 181; list of vbs. in conj. II w. v
in perf., 211. c; v often om. in perf. of
e6 and its comps., 203. 0.
vafer, decl., 112. a; compar., 131. a.
valdé, use, 291. ¢. N. 1; valdé quam, 575. d.
Value, gen. of indefinite, 417.
Value, measures of, 632-638.
vannus, gend., 48. Exe.
vapuld, neutral passive, 192. 6
biosiaga gs 104-106 (cf. 98. c, d);
js., 122
Variations, abe Phonetic Variations.
Variations of spelling, 6.
vas, decl., 103. g. 2.
vas, decl., 79. e, 105. b.
vatés, decl., 78. 1.
-ve, vel, use, 324. e, 335. d. N.
vel (see -ve), w. superl., 291. ¢.
Velars, p. 2. ftn. 3.
velim, vellem, subjv. of modesty, 447.1
velim, vellem, w. subjv. (=opt.). 442.
&= imy.), 449, c.
velut, velut si, 524.
N.
b,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
véned (vénum ed), 192. b, 428. 7.
vénerat = aderat, 476.
Verba sentiendi et déclarandi, 397. e;
459, 579; passive use of, 582; in poets
and later writers, id. N
ee Foe +» 201-253; in ~Ax, w. gen.,
Verbal. nouns w. dat., 367. d.
Verbal nouns and adjs. w. reflexive,
301. d.
Verbal roots, 228. 1.
VERBS, defined, 20. d; inflection, 153,
154; noun and adj. forms of, 155;
signification of forms, 156-162; per-
sonal endings, 163; the three stems,
164; forms of the vb., 164-166 (notes
on origin and hist. of vb. forms, 164.
ftn., 168, 169); table of endings, 166;
influence of imitation, 169. ftn.; reg-
ular vbs., 171-189; the four conjuga-
tions, 171-173; prin. rts of, 172;
mixed vbs., 173. a; eponents, 190,
191; semi-deponents, 192; periphrastic
forms, 193-196 ; irregular vbs., 197-204 ;
defective, 205, 206 ; impersonal, 207,
208. Classified lists of vbs. -» 209-212.
Derivation of vbs., 256-263; comp.
vbs., 267; vowels in comp. vbs., id. a.
n.2. Index of vbs., pp. 437 ff.
Vess, Syntax. Subject implied in end-
ing, 271. a; rules of agreement, 316-
319; vb. omitted, 319; rules of syn-
tax, 437-593, Cases w. vbs., see under
Accusative etc. Position of vb., 596,
598. d,j. (See under the names of the
Moods ete
vereor, w. gen., 357. 6. 1; w. subjv., 564.
veritus, as pres. part., 491.
véro, 394, d,j; in answers, 336. a. 1; po-
sition of, 599. 6.
Verse, 612.
Versifieation, 612-629; forms of verse,
613.
versus, position of, 599. d.
vert, constr., 417. b.
veri, ’gend., 91.
vérum or vers, use, 324. d,j
vescor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. n.1;
gerundive, 500. 3, 503. N. 2,
vesper, decl., 50. 6.
vesperi (loc.), 50. 6, 427. a.
vester, decl., 112. a, 145.
vestri as obj. gen., 143. c, 295. b.
an as part. gen., 143. b, 295. 6 (ct.
a w. ace. and inf., 563. a.
vetus, decl., 119, 121. "a; compar., 125.
via, abl. of aanner, 412. d.
vicem, adverbial use of, 397. a.
vicinus, w. gen., 385. ¢.
vicis, decl., 103. A. 1.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
vidélicet, derivation, 216.
video ut, 563.
videor, w. dat., 375. 0.
vin’ (visne), 13. N.
vir, decl., 47, 50. 0.
virgo, decl., 62.
virus, gender of, 48. a.
vis, stem, 71. 6; decl., 79.
viscera, 101. n. i.
visd, 263. 4. N.
vo- (va-), primary suffix, 234. II. 8.
vocalis, decl., 76. b. 2.
Vocative, defined, 35. f; form, 38. a; in
-I of nouns in -ius, decl. II, 49. c; of
Greek nouns, id. c. N.; of adjs. in -ius,
110. a. Syntaz, 340.
Voices, 154. a, 156; middle voice, id. a.
N., 163. fin. 2, 190. e.
vol and comps., conj., 199; part. of, w.
dat. of the person judging, 378. N.; W-
inf., 456 and N.; w. perf. act. inf. in
prohibitions, 486. c; w. perf. part., 486.
d and n., 497. c. N.; w. subjv. or inf.,
volucer, decl., 115. a.
volucris, decl., 78.
-volus, adj. in, comp., 127.
vos, 143 and a. =
voster etc., see vester.
voti damnatus, 352. a.
Vowel changes, 15. 1-3; vowel variations,
17.
Vowel roots of verbs, 179. a-c.
Vowel stems of verbs, 259-262.
Vowel suffixes (primary), 234. I.
Vowels, 1; pronunciation, 8; long and
short, 10; contraction, 15.3; quantity
of final vowels in case-endings, 38. g;
vowel modified in noun stems, decl.
Ill, 56. a; lengthened in root, 177. d,
475
231. 6; list of vbs. w. vowel lengthen-
ing in perf., conj. III, 211. e.
vulgus (volgus), gend., 48. a.
-vus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
™ not in Latin alphabet, 1; sound of, 1.
N
Want, words of, w. abl., 401; w. gen., 356.
Way by which (abl.), 429. a.
Weight, measures of, 637.
Whole, gen. of, 346; numbers expressing
the whole, id. e.
Wills, fut. imv. in, 449. 2.
Winds, gender of names of, 31.
Wish, expressed by subjv., 441; as a con-
dition, 521.6; wish in informal ind.
disc., 592. 1.
Wishing, vbs. of, w. inf., 486. d (cf. 457) ;
w. subst. clause of purpose, 563. 6; w.
ace. and inf., id.
Without, w. verbal noun, 496. Nn. 3.
Women, names of, 108. 6 and ftn.
Words and Forms, 1-267.
Words, formation of, 227-267; arrange-
ment of, 595-601.
Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed
in Lat., 157. b.
“%: nom. ending, 56; gend., 86; x from s,
in vbs., 211. a.
Y, of Greek origin, 1. n.1.
Year, 630; months of, 630, 631; date,
424. g.
-y°/.-, suffix, 174.
Yes, in Latin, 336.
yo- (ya-), primary suffix, 234. IT. 11.
-ys, nom. ending, 82; quantity, 604. 7.
Z, of Greek origin, 1. a. N.
LATIN AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS
CITED IN THIS BOOK
Nortsr.—In the citations the names Cesar, Cicero, Sallust (with Iugurtha), and
Virgil are not generally given. Thus, “B. G.’’ refers to Cesar’s Bellum Gallicum ;
‘“‘Fam.”’ to Cicero’s letters ad Familiares; ‘Tug.’ to Sallust’s Iugurtha;
Virgil’s “neid, etc.
Ap., Apuleius (A.D. 125-?) :
Met., Metamorphoses.
ae, he Afr., Bellum Afri-
Cesar ‘(@. c. 100-44):
B. C., Bellum Civile.
B. G., Bellum Galli-
cum.
Cato (B.c. 234-149):
de M., de Moribus.
R. R., de Re Rustica.
are Catullus (B.C. 87-
Cie Cicero (B.c. 106-43):
Acad., Academica.
Ad Her., [ad Heren-
nium).
Arch., pro Archia.
Att., ad Atticum.
Balb., pro Balbo.
Brut., Brutus de Claris
Oratoribus.
Caec., pro Caecina.
Caecil., Divinatio in
Caecilium.
Cael., pro M. Caelio.
Cat., in Catilinam.
Cat. M., Cato Maior (de
Senectute).
Clu., pro Cluentio.
Deiot., pro Deiotaro.
De Or., de Oratore.
Div., de Divinatione.
Dom., pro Domo Sua.
Fam., ad Familiares.
Fat., de Fato.
Fin., de Finibus.
Flace. -» pro Flacco.
Font., pro M. Fonteio.
Har. Resp. ., de Haruspi-
cum onsis.
de Inventione
Cic. Lael., Laelius (de Ami-
Legg., de Legibus.
Lig., pro Ligario.
Manil., pro Lege Ma-
nilia.
Mare., pro Marcello.
Mil., pro Milone.
Mur., pro Murena.
N. D., de Natura De-
orum.
Off., de Officiis.
Or., Orator.
Par., Paradowa.
Part. Or., de Partitione
Oratoria.
Phil., Philippicae.
Planc., pro Plancio.
Pison., in Pisonem.
Prov. Cons., de Provin-
ciis Consularibus.
Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem.
Quinct. ,pro Quinctio.
Rabir., pro Rabirio.
Rab. Post. ,pro Rabirio
Postumo.
Rep., de Re Publica.
Rose. Am., pro Roscio
Amerino.
Rose. Com., pro Roscio
Comoedo.
Scaur., pro Scauro.
Sest., pro Sestio.
Sull., pro Sulla.
Tim., Timaeus (de Uni-
verso).
Top., Topica.
Tull., pro Tullio.
Tusce., Tusculanae Dis-
putationes.
Vat., in Vatinium.
476
** Aen.” to
Cic. Verr., in Verrem.
Claud., Glaudianus (abt.
A.D. 400) :
iv C. H., de Quarto
Consulatu Honorii.
=~ : Ennius (B.c. 239-
Gell, ‘A Gellius (d. A.v.
Hintins (d. B.c. 43):
? B. Al., Bellum Alex-
andrinum.
Hor., Horace (B.c. 65-8) :
A. P., de Arte Poetica.
C. 8., Carmen Saecu-
8. Satires.
Iust., Justinus (abt. Ap.
150).
Iuv., Juvenal (abt. A.p. 60-
140
Liv., Livy (B.c.59-A.p.17).
ee Lucretius (B.c. 96-
Mart., Martial (a.p. 43-
? 104):
Ep., Epigrams.
Nep., Nepos (B.c. 99-24):
Ages., Agesilaus.
Ale., Alcibiades.
Att., Atticus.
Dat., Datames.
Dion, Dion.
Epam., Epaminondas.
Eum., Eumenes.
Hann., Hannibal.
Milt., Miltiades.
Paus., Pausanias.
Them., Themistocles.
Timoth., Timotheus.
LIST OF AUTHORS CITED
Oy., Ovid (B.c.43-A.D.17):
A. A., Ars Amatoria.
F., Fasti.
H., Heroides.
M., Metamorphoses.
Pont., Epistulae ex
Ponto.
Trist., Tristia.
Pers., Persius (A.D. 34-62) :
Sat., Satires.
Phaed., Phaedrus (abt.
A.D. 40).
Pl., Plautus (B.c. 254-184) :
m., Amphitruo.
Asin., Asinaria.
Aul., Aulularia.
Bac., Bacchides.
Capt., Captivi.
Cist., Cistellaria.
Cure., Curculio.
Epid., Epidicus.
Men., Menaechmi.
Merc., Mercator.
Mil., Miles Gloriosus.
Most., Mostellaria.
Pers., Persa.
Poen., Poenulus.
Ps., Pseudolus.
Rud., Rudens.
Stich., Stichus.
Trin., Trinummus.
Truc., Truculentus.
Plin., Pliny, senior (A.D.
23-79) :
H. N., Historia Natu-
ralis.
Plin., Pliny, junior (A.D.
62-113) :
Ep., Epistles.
sire Tpicperting (B.C. 49-
Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus
(abt. B.c. 44).
Q. fis Q. Curtius (abt. A.p.
Quintilian (abt.
D. 35-95
Sall., Sallust (B.C. 86-34) :
Cat., Catilina.
' Ep. Mith., EZpistula
Mithridatis.
Tug., Iugurtha.
—,, 8. C. de Bac., Senatus
Consultum de’ Baccha-
nalibus (B.c. 186).
Sen., Seneca (B.c. 4-A.D.
Quin,
):
Dial., Dialogues.
Ep., Epistles.
Here. Fur., Hercules
Furens.
Here. Oet., Hercules
Oecetaeus.
Med., Medea.
417
Sen. or N., Quaestiones Na-
urales
Sil., Silfus Italicus (abt.
AD. 25-101).
Suet., Suetonius (abt. a.p.
75-160) :
Aug., Augustus.
Dom., Domitianus.
Galb., Galba.
Tac., Tacitus (abt. A.D.
55-120) :
Agr., Agricola.
Ann., Annales.
H., Historiae.
Ter., Terence (d. B.c. 159):
., Adelphi.
And., Andria.
Eun., Eunuchus.
Haut., Hautontimoru-
Val., Valerius Maximus
(abt. A.D. 26).
Varr., Varro (B.c. 116-27) :
R. R., de Re Rustica.
Vell., Velleius Paterculus
(abt. B.c. 19-a.D. 31).
Verg., Virgil (B.c. 70-19).
‘Aen. vs
Ecl., Eclogues.
Georg., Georgics.
fe.
pie 8 sai & oe ine : een! hate ue
8 Kee i's) fae ett € ahi Babi | ry BO se
way?) thle ma tioar Shite Pu
Sal get e
a we <
. 5 Nae age ; pe
Foe beg B88 Fn ae
ch Oey. iG eee Sey My). bE
Le. uo SMe, 4
Cua hrea Fe Avi > and ;3
Bie na x oe thi, et ‘ ? ie ale are ery a
: et watery te Liter e ae : i
et a
; SS BIS PP le
Te 7 4 4 ‘eat ‘ en)
> Ag gt pagel AL
Sa Wed
are Bee Loe Caen OTS ee
er tee mers.
pus MAL oO0aeh peat
y © Ae a hg
i
eli J mg
oe cee
a ents NGAP: A
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
PARALLEL REFERENCES
OLp New OLD NEw
1 1 22 25
la 2 23 26
2-4 3-5 24 28
5 (p. 4) 10 25 20
6 1. aandn 25. e 20. b. N. 1
7 6. a, b 25. f-i 20. e-h
8-11 14-19 26 22
10. b 15. 2 27 23
ii. 1 15. 4 28 29
11. a. 2 15. 5 28. a 30
11: 15. 11 28. b. N. 30. a and n.3
ll.e 15. 6 29. 1 81
11. e. 3 and n 16 29. 2 32
12 6 29. a 81. a, b, N.
12. ac 6. N. 1-3 29. b 82. a, b
13 13 29. ¢ 33
13. b,c 13. w. 30 34
14 7 80. a —
14.6 7.N.1 30. b 34. N,
14. ¢ 7.6 31 85
14. d — 31. hon 27. a.
14, e 7. N.2 $2. ftn. 1 36
15 18 32 37
15 (p. 10) 19 and n.1 33 38
16 8 34 39
16. N. 4 11.6. nN 35 40-42
17. a-c — 86 43
AT: 8. N. 36. f 43. N.1
18 9-11 37 44
18. a-c 10. a-c 37. a, b 44.b,a
18. d 11.5 38 45-47
18. e€ ll.c 89 48
18. f 10. e 39. a 48. Exe.
19. a, b 12 39. b 48 a.
19. ¢ 12. 4 40 49
19, d. 1-3 12:4: Bae... —- 40. d 49. cand nN.
20 21 40. e-g 49. d, g, e
21 24 41 50
480 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
OLD NEw OLD ’ New
41. d, e 50. ¢ 70. b se
42 51 70. ¢ 92. b
43 52 70. d 92. ¢
3d decl. 53-55 70. e€ 92. d
44-50 56-64 70. f 93
44 56, 58 70. 9 93. N.1
45 56. a \ 70. h 92. f
46 57, 59 71 94
47 57. a Tl. a 94. b
47.4 70 71. b 94. ¢
47. b 60. a 72 95, 96
47.¢ 62. N. 3 73 97 anda
48 61, 62. N. 1, 2, 63 74. a 98. Nn.
48. a 61. 1 74. b 98. c
48. b 61. 2, 3, 63. 1 74. ¢c 98. b
48. c¢ 61. 4 74. d 98. a
48. da 62. Nn. 2, 63. 2 74. ftn. 98. d
48. e 62. N. 2 75 99, 100
49, 50 62-64 76 101, 102
51-54 65-73 165.1 101. 1, 2
51. b 66 76. 2,3 101, 3, 4
5l.c 68 76. a—c 102. 1-3
52 67, 69 77 103
53. a, b 65. 1. a 77. 1-4 108. a-d
53. ¢ 65. 1. b 77. 2. a-f 103. b. 1-6
54 70-72 77. 3. a-e 1038. ¢
54. 1, 2 71. 1-4, 6 77. 4. a-c 103. d. 1-3
54. 3 71. 5 77. 5. a-d 103. f. 1-4
54, ftn. 2 73 77. 6. a-c 103. g. 1-3
55 74 77. 7. ac 103. h. 1, 2
56 75 78 104
57 76 78.1 105
57. c-e 76. N. 1-3 78. lie 105. e, f
58 77 78.1. f 105. g
59 78 78. 2 106
60, 61 79 79 107
62 80 79. b 817. d. n.2
62. a p. 34. ftn 79. ¢ 101. N.1
62. N. 80. ftn. 79. d 101. n.2
63, 64 81-83 80 and a 108
63. a-e 83. a-e 80. b-d 108. a-c
63. f 81 P. 47, top 109
63. g-t 82 81 110
64 82 82 111, 112
65 84-87 82. a 111. a. wn.
66, 67 — 82. b lll. a
68 88, 89 82. ¢ 112. a
68. N. —- 82. d 111. b
69 90 83 113
69. b + 91 83. ftn. 2 1138. b
70 92 83. a 113. a
70. a 92. a, ¢ 83. b 113. c-e
SSSR8SSESFEE
sete er
aeoeg Roamer oa
BAU AA
ao 2wwre
oe OCRR
4
ao
“eo aooe, ig
a
Ly
for)
3
5
PARALLEL REFERENCES
NEw
114-116
115. a
115. a. N.1
116. n.
115. n.2
117-119
119
121. e
120
120. b
120. ¢
121
491. a.
121. b,
121. d
122. a-c
122
288, 289
122. d
821. c
214. d, e
128, 124
125 and a
126
127
128
124. a
243
129
130, 131
181. ¢
180. a
131. a
131. b
131. d
218 and a
291. a-c
3138. b
291. c. nN. 1-3
132-134
1383. N.1
134. a
134. b and nN.
OLD
MMoacrawnmace
acca
.
°
151
149,
310.
151.
3138.
151.
154.
164,
156
R4zwzaAwA sy
na
os
Dywy~wanwn
m=
481
a0 be
b @
151. e, f, 310.4
b
g
b. N. 2
h, i
. ¢, 161. f
hk
-@
-9
~C¢
484. c, 575. @
3. a
'e
3. b, cand N.
482
OLD
112
112.
113
113.
113.
114
115
115.
oes
wlatoletetel.istst-t sa
eg a
OO OHOONIIAAAAH
r access
S ~o be
eo
= _
DOSS;
oo —_
zeoR ps
120.
121
ft ht et et et
bo bo bo bo bo
a
122.
all aval anal
bo bo bo
Ge 68 Co
— —
Moascece Zacce z
128.
_
bo
[a]
123.
124
125
125.
125.
= 3
ore
2
164. 1-3
171-1738
171
172
178
178.
174
175
176.
174.
176.
176.
176.
g
-_
~I
oO
eAaacres
9
~
139. ftn.
—
i
te
ao
P. 120. Note.
P. 120. Note. 1.
P. 120. Note. 2
P. 121. Note. 3
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
i
~
CS
Rae
_
f=")
PP
2¢
Q
217
PARALLEL. REFERENCES 483
OLD New OLD NEw
151. d 322. d and n. 164. h 250. a
151. e 822. e, f 164. i 254
P.127;-ftn, 219 164. k 245
152 220 164. 1 251
153 O21. 1-28 164. m 252
154 223 164. n 2538. ¢
154. N.1 222 164. o 253. a
154, n.2 224 164. p 253. b
155 224 164. g, r 255 and a
156 $24. b 165 256
156. a 824. a, b 165. 2 257
156. a. 3d par. 828. a 166 258
156. a. 4th par. 324. c¢ 166. a. 1 259. 1
156. b 824. d 166. b 260
156. ¢ 324. e-g 166. ¢ 261
156. d, e 824. h, i 166. d 262. a, b
. 156. f 540. N. 1-3 167 263
156. g 539, 540. a. Nw. 167. a 263. 1
156. A. 1 823. g 167. band n. 263. 2 and a
156. h. 2 323. e 167. c 263. 2. b
156. i 527. c, d ' 167. d, e 263. 3, 4
156. k 324, j 168 264
Interjections 225, 226 168. a-c 265. 1-3
P. 140. Note 227 168. d 265. a
157 228 169 266
157. n 229. Nn. 170 267
158 230, 231 170. a. N 267. N. 2
158. 1. a, b 281. a, b 170. c 267. d. 1,2
158. l. c 281. ¢ 170. d 267. ¢
159 232 P. 168 268
160 233 171 269
160. a, b 283. 1, 2 172 270
160. c 234 172. N. 272
160. c. 2. a-e 234. II. 1-18 172. n. 2d par. 284. b
161 235 173. 1 839
162 236 178. 2 897. e
163 237 174 271
163. l. a 238. a 174. 2 271. 4
163. ¢ 239 175 273
163. d 240 and a 175. a 278. 2
163. d. n. 240. n. 175. b 273. 1
163. 2 241.1, 2anda 176 2838
163. f, g 241. b,c 176. b 284
164 242 177 274
164. a 243 177. a 275
164. a. R. 243. a 177. 6 274. a
164. b 244 177. ¢ 274. b
164. ¢ 249 178 276
164. ad 248 179 277
164. e 250 180 278. 1, 2
164. f 246 180. c~e 279. a-e
Bi
<
=
B;
ie
5
a
484 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
OLD NEw OLD New
181, 182 280 197. f 806. b. N.
183 281 P. 186. Note 803
184 282 P. 186, bottom 804
184. b 282. ¢ 198 305 and n.
184. c 282. d 199 306
184. d, e 802. e 200 3807
185 283, 284 200. d 807. f
186. a, b 285. 1, 2 200. e 807. d
186. b. 2, 38 285. 201. a, b, e 808. a, c,
186. c 282. b, c 201. d 307. e
186. d 286. a 201. e-h 308. fi
187 287 202 809
187. a 287. 1, 2 202. a 310
187. b 287. 3 202. b 311
187. b. N. 287. 4 202. ¢ 812
187. ¢ 287. 4. a 202. d 313
187. d, e 286. b, N. 202. e 813. a
188. a-c 288. a-c 202. f 314
188. Rk 288. Nn. nillus 814. a
188. d, e 821. c, d 203 815. a
189 289 203. a 315
190 343. a 203. c. N 315. N
190. a 302. d 204 316
191 290 205 317
192 292 205. c and 1 817. d
192. b 292. a. N 205. c. 2 317. e
193 293 205. d 317. ¢
P. 178. Note 294 206 318
194 295 206. ¢ 319
194. b. N 295. b. N. 2 206. c. 1 319. a
195 296 and 2 206. c. 2 319. b
195. 2 296. 1 207 821
195. a 297. f 207. n. 2, 3 320
195. b 297. b. N. 207. b 432. a
195. c 298. a 207. ¢ 321. b
195. d 296. a 207. d 821. ¢c. N
195. e, f 298. b,c 208 823
195. f. R. 298. c. N. 1 208. b. 1-3 828. c. 1-3
195. g 298. d. 1 208. ¢ 823. d
195. h,t 298. d. 2, 3 208. d 323. f
195. k 298. e 208. e 323. k
195. 1 298. f 209 825
196 299 209. a 326, 327
196. a 800 209. b 828
196. a. 2. N 300. b 209. c 326. c
196. b 801. a 209. d 829
196. ¢ 301. b 209. e 829. a
196. d-f 801. d-f 210 330, 331
196. g . 801. ¢ 210. a 332
196. A 299. a 210. b-d 332. a—c
196, é 800. b 210. d. Rr. 832. c. N. 2
197 302 210. e 833
PARALLEL REFERENCES 485
OLD New OLD NEw
210. e. R. 333. N. 225. e 3865
210. f 333. a 226 866
210. f. R. 331. N., 382. 6. N. 227 367
211 334, 335 227. N.2 867. a. N.2
211. Rk. 335. N. 227. c. N. 3867. a. N.1
212 836 227. e 368
212. b 337 227. f 3869
212. b. R. 835. d. N. 228 370
P. 205. Note 338 228. n.1 370. a
P. 206. Note 341 228. a,b 870. b, ¢
213 342 228. c : 871
2138.1,2andn. 343. n.1, 348. N. 229 381
214 anda. 1 343 229. ¢ 368. a
214. a. 2 348. a 230 372
214. b 843. N. 2 231 873
214. ¢ 843. b 231. Rr 373. N
214.ca RK 343. BN. 231. a 873. b
214. d 848. ¢ 231. 6, ¢ 873. a
214. d. rx 843. c. N.1 232 3874
214. da. Nn 348. c. N. 2 232. N 374. a and Nn. 1
214. e 344 232. a 875
214. f 8438. d 232. b, c 375. a, b
214. g 359. b 233 882
215 845 233. a 882. l and n. 1
216 346 233. b 882. 2
216. R 346. N.2 234 383
P. 211, top 347 234. a 384
217 348 234. b-d 885. a-c
218 849 234. e 432. a
218. b 849. ¢ 235 376
218. c 849. d 235. a 377
218. c.R 358 235. b 378. 1, 2
219 850 235. c 378. 2. N.
219. b 850. d 235. d 879
219. c 351 235. e 379. a
220 352 236 880
220. b 8538 236. R. 379. N
220. b. 3 $58. 2. HN. P. 235. Note 886
220. b. N 852. N. 237 887
221 354 237. a 887.6
221. d 354. c. N. 237. b, d-f 388. a-d and n. 1
222 355 237. ¢ 390. a
223° 856 237.9 500. 3
223. a 357 237. h 889
228. c 358 238 390
223. d 359 238. a, b 390. b-d
223. e 359. b 238. c 888. d
P. 218. Note 360 238. c. N. 390. d. N.1
224 861 239 391
225 862 239. 1 892
225. b, ¢ 363, 369 239. 1. a, N. 1 393, N.
225. d 364 239. a. N.2 393. a
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
OLD New OLD NEw
239. R. 395. N. 3 249. b 410. a. N.1
239. 2 394 249. bu N 410. a. nN. 2
239. 2. b 895 and rR. 250 414
239. c 396 250. rn. and Nn. 414. aand nN.
239. c. N. 1,2 396. a, b 250. a 414. b
239. ¢c. R 896. b. N 251 415
239. d 396. c 252 416
240. a 390. c, d and n. 2 252. a 417
240. b 897. a 252. b-d 417. a-c
240. c, d 897. b, d 253 418
240. c. N. 897. ¢€ 258. N. 418. a and Nn.
240. e 423, 425 253. a 610. Nn. 1
240. f, 9g 397. e, f P. 260. Note 421
241 340 254 426. 3
241. 339. a 254. a 429. 3
241. d 840. ¢ 254. b. 1 431
242 899 254. b. 2 431. a
242. N 898 254. b. 2. R 431. a. N.1
243 400 255 419
243. a 401 255. d 420
243. b 402 256 423
243. d 402. a 256. a, b 424. a,b
243. e 411 257 425
243. e. N 411. a 258 426. 1, 2
243. e. R 411. b 258. 2. nN. 1 428. h
243. f 356 258. 2. nN. 2 428. c
243. f. R. 356. N. 258. a 427.1
244 403 258. a. N. 1 428. a
244. a. R 403. a. N.1 258. a. N. 2 428. f
244.6 403. a. N. 2,3 258. a. Nn. 3 428. 9
244, c-e 403. b-d 258. b 427. 2
245 404 258. b. NL 1 428. k
245. a. landn.2 418. b 258. b. N. 2 428. a
245. a 404. a 258. 0. N. 3 428. b
246 405 258. 6. N. 5 428. g
246. R 405. n. 2 258. b. R. 428. t
246. b. x 405. b. nN. 2 258. c. 1 426. 3
247 406 258. ¢. 2 427. 3
247. a, c—e 407 and a, c-e 258. c. 2. B. 428. e
247. a. R. 407. aN. 5 258. c. N.1 428. dand n.1
247.6 406. a 258. d 427. a
P. 258. Note 408 258. e 428. k
248 412 258. f. 1-3 429. 14
248. Nn. 412. a 258. 9 429. a
248. R. 412. band n. 259 424
248. a 413 259. a 424. d
248. a. N. 413. a 259. b 424. e
248. a. R. 413. N. 259. c 424. c¢
248. c. 1 409 259. d 424, f
248. c. 2 409. a 259. e 424. g
248. ¢c.2.R 409. a. N. 259. g 428. j. N
249 410 259. h 428. 7
ACSA RAY
+ gone
A
ow
es QaoR
~. >)
PARALLEL REFERENCES
P. 291. Note
rs
oS
eal eae
cao
ra
fon)
os
as
471. af
487
488 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
to
ive}
G & |
OCR BA
303. N. R.
P. 320. Note
506. n. 2
516
516. B. N.C. N.
617
OLD
808
809
318
. band Rr.
P2224
own
ASRO SRR EAA
v4
Sg ogee ce
P. 348. Note
819
819.
. 3. N. and rR.
819.
319
319
319
3
-
a
se Rs
PARALLEL REFERENCES 489
OLD New OLD New
820 5385 881. 7. N.1 565. N. 3
320. f. N. 535. f. N. 2 831. i. N. 3 565. N. 2
P. 348, mid. n, 539 P. 362, bottom. n. 567
821 540 832 568
321. N. 3 540. a 8382. a 569
821. R. 540. nN. 3 832. b 571. a
821. a-c 540. b-d 3382. ¢ 462. a
P. 349, bottom. n. 541 8382. d 571. b
322 542 832. e 568. N.1
322. R. 535. a. N.3 832. f 571. ¢
323 545, 546 332. g 558
824 543 832. 9. R 558. a
325 545-548 832. g. N. 2 558. a. N. 2
825. a 545 832. h 580. d
825. a. N 546. n. 4 833 572
325. b 546. a 833. b. RB. 572. b. N.
$25. ¢ 547 834 5738-575
826 and R 549 834. ¢ 576
326. a. R 549. a. N. 334. c. RB 576. N
827 550, 551 834. d, e 575. c, d
827. a 551. ¢ 834. f 576. a
327. 0 551. c. N. 2 834. g 447. a,b
828 552, 553 P. 369. Note 577
828, 2 554, 555 835 578
328. 2. N.1 555. N. 2 335. R 578. N.
828. a 556 836. 1 579
828. a. 556. a. N. 1 836. 2 580
328. R. 556. a. N. 1 836. 2. nN. 2 580. a
328. R. 556. a. N. 2 8386. 2. N.3 580. ¢
329 560, 561 836. a. 1 581
329. N. 561. n. 1 3836. a. R. 581. n. 2
329. R. 561. n. 2 836. a. 2 582
829. (classification) 562 836. a. 2. N. 2 582. a. N.2
330 452 836. b 583
830. B 459 336. ¢ 583. b
330. B. 2, 3 563. a, b 336. c. N. 2 583. ¢
830. R. 562. N. 836. d 588. a
330. a, b 582 836. A 584
830. a. 2 566. b 3836. A. N.1 584. a and n
830. 6. 2 566. ¢ 836. B 585
830. ¢ 582, a 836. B. n. 2 585. a
830. d 582. nN. 836. B. a 585. b
330. e 579. ftn. 1 837 589
330. f 580. c 338 586
831 and b. nN. 563 and b 838. a 587
331. e. 2 558. b 839 588
331. f 564 839. R. 588. a
331. f. ftn. 564, N. P. 378, mid. 590
331. f. R. 565, a, 569. 2. N. 2 340 591
831. g 563. N. 841 592
831. A 566 841. b-d 592. 1-3
331. 7 565 341. R. 592. N.
490 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S LATIN GRAMMAR
OLD New OLD
342 593 860
342. ftn. 2d par. 593. N.2 860. R.
P. 381 ff. 594 361
P. 386, top. Note 595 862
343 596 and a 862. a
344 597 862. a. N.
844. R. 597. a. N.2 862. b and R.
P. 389, top. R 597. b 862. c
P. 389, top. a 598. a 363
5 599 364
345. a 599. d 365
345. d 599. a 366
P. 392. Note 600 367
346 601 867. b
P. 394. Note 602 P. 414, mid. Note
347 603 368
347. d 603. f 369
347. d. nN. 1,2 603. f.N.2,3 - 870
347. d. R. 603. f. N. 4 871
347. & RB 603. f. N.1 872
348 604 3738
348. 1-10 604. a-j 374
348. 9. Hac 604. i. 1-6 875
349-351 — 875. 6, c, e
351. b 605 375. d
352, 353 — 875. e
354 606 8375. f
354. d 606. c. N. 375. g
P. 402. Note 607 875. g. 8-5
355. R 608. Nn. 375. h
356 609 P. 425. Note
356. e 609. n 376
356. f 609. e 377
357 610 378
357. b — 379
357. ¢ 610. b 380
358 611 881
359 612 382
359. b, ¢ 612. d, e 883
859. b. R. 612. d. x 384
359. ¢. R. 612. e. N. P. 429
359. d and R. 612. f. N. 1,2 385
359. e€ 612. g 386
359. f, 9 612. b, c 387
NEw
Nn
zZ
a3]
ca
oO
vA
P
‘O
ANN
seg aE
Pi =|
wae _— e
a A
a BR ire, ey,
ase. aie |
+
LATIN TEXT-BOOKS
List Mailing
price price
Allen: Germania and Agricola of Tacitus . . $1.00 $1.10
Allen and Greenough: Cesar, Books I-VII (Revised Edition) . 1.25 1.40
Cesar, Books I-IV. . 1.00 =I.I0
Allen and Greenough: Cicero. Orations and Letters (Edited by
Greenough and Kittredge) . ° 1.30 1.45
Allen and Greenough: Cicero. Select Orations . 1.40 1.55
Allen and Greenough: Cicero. Six Orations (Edited by ¢ Green-
ough and Kittredge). . pied ie te 1.00 =: I..10
Allen and Greenough: Cicero de Senectute . . 60 65
Allen and Greenough: New Latin Grammar . , 1.20 1.30
Allen and Greenough: Ovid, with Vocabulary. . . 1.50 1.65
Allen and Greenough: Sallust’s Catiline (Revised by Greenough
and Daniell) : go 95
Allen and Greenough: Shorter Latin Grammar . 5 splepObaicr Os
Browne: A Memory-Test Latin Word-List . Pe 80
Collar:, Gate to. Ceesar...ow isc's’ 4 set é:85 A eh 45
Collar: New Gradatim. . - oo oie eG 55
Collar: Practical Latin Composition ‘ oa EADS E.Te
Collar: Via Latina set ee 85
Collar and Daniell: Beginner's Latin Book «+ + F.00 4.10
Collar and Daniell: First Latin Book . at! at (OO) 38D.
Collar and Daniell: First Year Latin. . . oo, Op kOe ksZO
Teachers’ Manual to Accompany First Year Latin oe et GES
College Series of Latin Authors (see circulars for details)
Crowell: Selections from the Latin Poets .. . o 0 0 « E40 1.55
Crowell and Richardson: History of Roman Literature *, a oy at E00) KIO
D’Ooge: Easy Latin for Sight Readin * «8 40 45
D’Ooge: Latin See for Secondary Set Schools —
Part I . . oy ® Ned emer th 5° 55
Parts II and lll . Hn 60 65
D’Ooge: Latin Composition to “Accompany Greenough, "D’Ooge,
and Daniell’s Second Year Latin. . 50 55
Ginn and Company: Classical Atlas . cloth, $2. 00, ‘$e. 305 boards 1.25 1.40
Gleason: Gate to Vergil . 45 50
Greenough, D’Ooge, and Daniell : Second Year Latin 2 E28" e460
Greenough and Kittredge: Bucolics and A<neid, I-VI . 1.60 1.75
Greenough and Kittredge: New Virgil. #neid, I-VI. 1.50 1.65
Latin and Greek School Classics (see circulars for spire
Lothman: Latin Lessons . Sle ane 909 ‘1.00
Moulton: Preparatory Latin Composition ‘ 1.00 =: 1.10
Part I. Based on Caesar and Cicero with Supplementary
Sight Tests. . sete 80 90
Part II. A Systematic Drill i in "Syntax . 25 <a
Post: Latin at Sight. . . 80 Reve)
Richardson: Helps to the Reading ‘of Classical Latin Poetry 50 55
Stickney: Cicero de Natura Deorum . > 1.40 1.55
Terence: Adelphoe, Phormio, Heauton Timorumenos. 1 vol. A 1.00 = 1.10
White: English-Latin Lexicon . 1.50 1.65
White: Latin-English Lexicon . . 1.00% UEDE
White: Latin- English and English- Latin Lexicon 2:25 12:56
5°
GINN AND COMPANY Pos tisHeErs
VIRGIL
REVISED EDITION
Edited by JAMES B. GREENOUGH, late Professor of Latin in Harvard University,
and GEORGE L. KITTREDGE, Professor of English in Harvard Uni-
versity, formerly Professor of Latin in Phillips Exeter Academy
AENEID, BOOKS I-VI, with a special Vocabulary. 12mo. Half morocco. xly +709
pages. Illustrated. List price, $1.50; mailing price, $1.65.
AENEID, BOOKS I-VI, BUCOLICS, with a special Vocabulary. xlv + 807 pages.
Illustrated. List price, $1.60; mailing price, $1.75.
AENEID, BOOK I, with marked quantities. Text Edition. 12mo. Paper. 33 pages.
Illustrated. List price and mailing price, 15 cents.
N this edition Virgil’s “Aeneid” is treated more as a piece of
inspiring literature than as so much Latin that must be per-
functorily studied. The Introduction discusses the Augustan
Age, Virgil’s. life, his fame, and the manuscripts by means of which
his writings have come down to us. The directions for translation
and metrical reading are suggestive and adequate. The Notes
contain frequent quotations from Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton,
Spenser, Pope, and other English authors who have drawn inspi-
ration from the “Aeneid.” The text is profusely illustrated.
This volume is regarded by critical and competent Latin teachers
as the most attractive as well as the most scholarly edition of
‘“‘ Virgil” for secondary schools yet issued in this country.
GREENOUGR’S VIRGIL
Edited by James B. GrEENOUGH, late Professor of Latin in Harvard University.
GEORGICS AND AENEID, BOOKS VII-XII. 12mo. Cloth. 333 pages. Illus-
trated. List price, $1.12; mailing price, $1.25.
TEXT EDITIONS
AENEID, BOOKS I-VI, AND BUCOLICS. 12mo. Paper. 18: pages. List price,
40 cents; mailing price, 45 cents.
AENEID, BOOK VII-XII. 12mo. Cloth. 157 pages. List price, 35 cents; mailing
price, 40 cents.
COMPLETE TEXT OF VIRGIL, BUCOLICS, AENEID, AND GEORGICS.
1zmo. Cloth. 228 pages. List price, 75 cents; mailing price, 85 cents.
53
GINN & COMPANY PuBLisHers
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S
CAESAR: GALLIC WAR
REVISED EDITION
Edited b James B. GrEENOoUGH, late Professor of Latin in Harvard University
B.L.D D’Oocz, Professor of Latin and Greek in Michigan State Normal
College, Ypsilanti, and M. Grant DaAnizLL, recently
Principal of Chauncy-Hall School, Boston
BOOKS I-IV. 12mo. Half leather. lix+ 268+ 162 pages. Illustrated. List price,
$1.00; mailing price, $1.10.
BOOKS I-VII. 12mo. Half leather. Ix + 616 pages. Illustrated. List price, $1.25;
mailing price, $1.40.
HIS new edition of Caesar’s “Gallic War” keeps prominently
in view the needs of the beginner, on the ground that a large
majority of those who read Caesar take it up immediately after
finishing their first lessons. It is believed that all this class of students’
needs have been fully met in the present edition.
Professor Greenough has specially qualified himself for editing this
edition by traveling and making recent investigations in France. Not
only the Notes but the illustrations have profited greatly. A consider-
able number of the pictures in this edition are from photographs made
especially for it. In other cases, pictures not previously seen in this
country have been obtained. The museums have been visited and
many new illustrations drawn from them. At the same time all the
standard and essential illustrations are used. It is believed that this
part of the editing will be found of signal excellence and practical value.
Several reading courses are suggested, each one of which, while
embracing an amount of text equal to the first four books, contains
choice selections of narrative and adventure from the various books. It
is believed that this feature will be especially acceptable to teachers who
have found the monotony of Caesar irksome but have seen no way to
vary the course.
Except in amount of Latin text, the four-book edition is practically
identical with the new edition of the complete Caesar’s “ Gallic War.”
It contains the Introduction, with the exception of two irrelevant pages,
the groups of related words, and the full Vocabulary. Many of the
illustrations of Books V, VI, and VII are inserted at the close, in order
to explain graphically a number of the references in the Introduction
and in the Notes. Quantities of long vowels are marked.
54
GINN & COMPANY PuBLisHeErs
ALLEN & GREENOUGH’S
CICERO
Revised Edition
Revised by J. B. GREENOUGH, late Professor of Latin in Harvard University,
and GEORGE L. KITTREDGE, Professor of English in Harvard Uni-
versity, formerly Professor of Latin in Phillips Exeter Academy
With a SPECIAL VOCABULARY by Professor Greenough
amo. Half morocco. Ixu+ 478+ 194 pages. Illustrated. List price, $1.40;
mailing price, $1.55
THIS new edition of Cicero has been treated with special
reference to the use of the orations as models of classic
oratory. The Introduction is made to help in this study of
applied logic and rhetoric. There is a full life of Cicero,
describing his education and development as an orator, as
well as his political career. There is a chapter connecting
the style of the orations with ancient formal rhetoric. There
is also a chapter on Roman oratory and the place of the
orator in ancient civilization.
_ The text includes the following orations: The Manilian
Law; four orations against Catiline; Archias; Milo; Mar-
cellus; Ligarius; the fourteenth Philippic; and copious
extracts from the Defence of Roscius and the Actio Secunda
against Verres.
Almost everything admitting of graphic presentation has
an illustratign, and no little study has been expended in
finding the most suitable pictures. Views of places, scenes
of Roman life, and portraits have been specially sought.
Many coins are shown. The illustrations are fully explained
in the Index, with criticisms.
| GINN & COMPANY Publishers
eet Fi
LOE.
University of California
SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388
Return this material to the library
from which it was borrowed.
REC'D Loy
APR 07 1907
JAN 15 1997
gates 18S
MAR 25 1993
~M
UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILI
Ne aaron
haere ne eet
en YS iN bracwanare nce ngeeneneh ary ereneareay bm
Sameera eee a
ee ee
rawr
* me
are monctnhpaehy ht bh nennrernowae 8 at
creer Fae
ah teen oon ea AR
i
Saeaa IE
~ bee S 2a»
chit awsteteis Aten nt nen
Laren yore
en eee eee) yi
(ora sae r
Se nat ea
scighiescne
Sete
Ps
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11